Original Article Published by Jeff Somers from Lifehacker How Long Does Liquor Last After You Open a Bottle? (lifehacker.com) The moment your alcohol starts to turn varies depending on a few data points: the type of liquor we’re talking about, whether the bottle’s been opened or not, and your storage practices. The outcome is also pretty variable—some liquor will simply taste worse and be less potent over time, while some will literally go bad. Here’s a quick guide to how much time you have to enjoy your alcoholic treasures after you open that bottle. How Air Affects Opened Bottles Of Liquor: Alcohol is a fickle product. Wine, for example, can continue to mature in the bottle, becoming richer and more interesting over time, but this isn’t the case for most hard liquors. Whiskey in a properly sealed bottle will be pretty much exactly the same whether you drink it today or 100 years from now. But once you do open that bottle, demon oxygen dives on in there and starts transforming your booze. And while the initial stages of this transformation can be positive (especially with whiskey, which can often improve slightly a few weeks after opening), eventually the oxidation process will rob you of your liquor. Here’s how long you can expect various categories of liquor to last post-opening. Whiskey: Whiskey’s high alcohol content and low sugar content means it’s fairly shelf-stable—but it will go “bad” about 2 years after you open the bottle. “Bad” is a spectrum, though—whiskey will never spoil, per se—you can drink a glass of opened whiskey 20 years from now and it will not kill you. You might not enjoy the experience, however, as the alcohol content will be lower from evaporation and the flavor profile will have turned. Note: Flavored whiskeys, especially if they are under 80 proof, may have a shorter lifespan because of a higher sugar content, so once you open that bottle of Honey Jack, you might as well pour all the shots. Vodka: Vodka will last a bit longer after opening than whiskey—up to a decade, maybe even more. The process is the same, however, and your vodka may start to taste different after just a few years, and will slowly lose its alcoholic power, as well. Just like whiskey, it will never actually “spoil,” but if you don’t consume it within a few years, your drinking experience will definitely degrade. And again, flavored vodkas will turn much more quickly due to the likely higher sugar content. Rum: Rum will last indefinitely if unopened and start to turn within six months afterward. After about two years, you’ll absolutely notice a difference in the taste profile and the potency of your rum. Gin: Gin has a slightly shorter runway once opened—it will taste significantly worse about a year after you open it. Just like other hard liquors, it won’t necessarily go bad in the sense of being dangerous to drink, it just won’t be the pleasant experience you’re hoping for. Brandy: You might think that because brandy is distilled from wine it goes bad in a few days just like a good bottle of Cabernet. The truth is yes and no—an opened bottle of brandy will start to taste “turned” in about 6 months, so you’re definitely on a shorter clock than other liquors. But it will still be drinkable for 2-3 years, and like other liquors, will never actually go completely rancid the way that bottle of red you shoved to the back of your liquor cabinet and forgot about will. Note: Some lower-proof brandies will turn much faster. Tequila: Tequila will last about one year after opening before it starts to taste bad. It doesn’t matter if it’s Mezcal or tequila, the time frame is about the same. It won’t kill you, but it won’t taste right—and once you notice the taste profile turning, it’s a downward slide from there. Liqueurs & Cordials: These sweet drinks have a high sugar content as a rule, and will generally go bad within 1-2 years—and in this case, the word “bad” does mean “spoiled.” And any liqueur that contains dairy (like Baileys Irish Cream) needs to go after a year or less. In fact, liqueurs that contain dairy won’t last that long even in unopened bottles, so make your purchase decisions carefully.
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Although directly tracing Blackjack’s history is impossible, many modern scholars believe that the game probably originated in the French casinos around 1700. The French cards were called "Vingt-et-Un," which translates to "Twenty-one." These cards are probably derived from card games Chemin de Fer, which were popular at that time. The card game was played at the French Royal Court during the reign of King Louis XV and some aspect of the game have also been derived from the Italian game of "Sette E Mezzo" and the Spanish game of "Trente-Un", both believed to have contributed several features to what is today known as the game of Blackjack. American gaming houses offered the game in the early 1800's, but it wasn’t called “blackjack” until the first part of the 20th century. The name comes from a special “bonus” of 10 to 1 that was paid if the player received a Black Ace and a Black Jack as his first two cards. Although that particular bonus is no longer found in the modern game, a smaller bonus of 3:2 or 6:5 is still paid for any player that receives an Ace and any 10-valued card as his first two cards (assuming the dealer doesn’t also have a Blackjack). Today, Blackjack is the most popular banking card game in casinos, and it surpassed Craps as the number one table game back in the 1960's. There is actually a theory that Blackjack is an invention by the Romans. The theory stands because Romans loved to gamble, but it is not confirmed. It is believed that Romans played this game with wooden blocks with different numbers painted on them, instead of paper cards. Besides the various versions of Vingt-et-Un, the popularity of the card games expanded through North America. The card game has made it to the American shore in the 18th century with the help of French colonists. The game couldn’t spread and develop in France in the 19th century. However, during this time the game evolved and gained popularity in America. The game would be seen in New Orleans in 1820 at the legalized gambling halls. Interesting enough, during this time the rules were different than the contemporary Blackjack we now know. For instance in the earlier form of Blackjack only the dealer was allowed to double. Also during this time, there was a tale of Eleanor Dumont. She was born in France and immigrated to America. She was a skilled dealer and was traveling around until she opened a gambling hall in Nevada City, California. Ironically, the place was named Vingt-et-Un. People were coming from all around the country to play against Eleanor, because she was considered a rarity between card dealers. Modern Day Blackjack: In the 20th century, the precursor of the blackjack was still called 21 in Nevada but it was during this time the card game 21 had changed its name to Blackjack. Gambling halls and casinos needed a way to promote the game. They offered bonus payouts, including one that paid extra if a black jack (a jack of spades or clubs) was dealt along with an ace of spades. As the game became more popular, the bonus payouts became less common but the informal name stuck. How To Play Blackjack: The rules are simple, the play is thrilling, and there is opportunity for high strategy. As a popular home game, it is played with slightly different rules. In the casino version, the house is the dealer (a "permanent bank"). In casino play, the dealer remains standing, and the players are seated. The dealer is in charge of running all aspects of the game, from shuffling and dealing the cards to handling all bets. In the home game, all of the players have the opportunity to be the dealer (a "changing bank"). ⭐ The Pack Of Cards: The standard 52-card pack is used, but in most casinos several decks of cards are shuffled together. The six-deck game (312 cards) is the most popular. In addition, the dealer uses a blank plastic card, which is never dealt, but is placed toward the bottom of the pack to indicate when it will be time for the cards to be reshuffled. When four or more decks are used, they are dealt from a shoe (a box that allows the dealer to remove cards one at a time, face down, without actually holding one or more packs). ⭐ Objective: Each participant attempts to beat the dealer by getting a count as close to 21 as possible, without going over 21. ⭐ Values & Scoring: It is up to each individual player if an Ace is worth 1 or 11. Face cards are 10 and any other card is it's face value. ⭐ Betting: Before the deal begins, each player places a bet, in chips, in front of them in the designated area. Minimum and maximum limits are established on the betting, and the general limits are from $2 to $500. ⭐ Shuffle & Cut: The dealer thoroughly shuffles portions of the pack until all the cards have been mixed and combined. The dealer designates one of the players to cut, and the plastic insert card is placed so that the last 60 to 75 cards or so will not be used. ⭐ Dealing: When all the players have placed their bets, the dealer gives one card face up to each player in rotation clockwise, and then one card face up to themselves. Another round of cards is then dealt face up to each player, but the dealer takes the second card face down. Thus, each player except the dealer receives two cards face up, and the dealer receives one card face up and one card face down. ⭐ Naturals: If a player's first two cards are an Ace and a "ten-card" (a picture card or 10), giving a count of 21 in two cards, this is a called a Natural or "Blackjack." If any player has a natural and the dealer does not, the dealer immediately pays that player one and a half times (x 1.5) the amount of their bet. If the dealer has a natural, they immediately collect the bets of all players who do not have naturals, (but no additional amount). If the dealer and another player both have naturals, the bet of that player is a stand-off (a tie), and the player takes back his chips. If the dealer's face-up card is a Ten-Card or an Ace, they look at their face-down card to see if the two cards make a natural. If the face-up card is not a Ten-Card or an Ace, they do not look at the face-down card until it is the dealer's turn to play. ⭐ The Play: The player to the left goes first and must decide whether to "stand" (not ask for another card) or "hit" (ask for another card in an attempt to get closer to a count of 21, or even hit 21 exactly). A player may stand on the two cards originally dealt to them, or they may ask the dealer for additional cards, one at a time, until deciding to stand on the total (if it is 21 or under), or goes "bust" (if it is over 21). In the latter case, the player loses and the dealer collects the bet wagered. The dealer then turns to the next player to their left and serves them in the same manner. The combination of an ace with a card other than a ten-card is known as a "soft hand," because the player can count the ace as a 1 or 11, and either draw cards or not. For example with a "soft 17" (an ace and a 6), the total is 7 or 17. While a count of 17 is a good hand, the player may wish to draw for a higher total. If the draw creates a bust hand by counting the ace as an 11, the player simply counts the ace as a 1 and continues playing by standing or "hitting" (asking the dealer for additional cards, one at a time). ⭐ The Dealer's Play: When the dealer has served every player, the dealers face-down card is turned up. If the total is 17 or more, it must stand. If the total is 16 or under, they must take a card. The dealer must continue to take cards until the total is 17 or more, at which point the dealer must stand. If the dealer has an ace, and counting it as 11 would bring the total to 17 or more (but not over 21), the dealer must count the ace as 11 and stand. The dealer's decisions, then, are automatic on all plays, whereas the player always has the option of taking one or more cards. ⭐ Signaling Intentions: When a player's turn comes, they can say "Hit" or can signal for a card by scratching the table with a finger or two in a motion toward themselves, or they can wave their hand in the same motion that would say to someone "Come here!" When the player decides to stand, they can say "Stand" or "No more," or can signal this intention by moving their hand sideways, palm down and just above the table. ⭐ Splitting Pairs: If a player's first two cards are of the same denomination, such as two jacks or two sixes, they may choose to treat them as two separate hands when their turn comes around. The amount of the original bet then goes on one of the cards, and an equal amount must be placed as a bet on the other card. The player first plays the hand to their left by standing or hitting one or more times; only then is the hand to the right played. The two hands are thus treated separately, and the dealer settles with each on its own merits. With a pair of aces, the player is given one card for each ace and may not draw again. Also, if a ten-card is dealt to one of these aces, the payoff is equal to the bet (not one and one-half to one, as with a blackjack at any other time). ⭐ Doubling Down: Another option open to the player is doubling their bet when the original two cards dealt total 9, 10, or 11. When the player's turn comes, they place a bet equal to the original bet, and the dealer gives the player just one card, which is placed face down and is not turned up until the bets are settled at the end of the hand. With two fives, the player may split a pair, double down, or just play the hand in the regular way. Note that the dealer does not have the option of splitting or doubling down. ⭐ Insurance: When the dealer's face-up card is an ace, any of the players may make a side bet of up to half the original bet that the dealer's face-down card is a ten-card, and thus a blackjack for the house. Once all such side bets are placed, the dealer looks at the hole card. If it is a ten-card, it is turned up, and those players who have made the insurance bet win and are paid double the amount of their half-bet - a 2 to 1 payoff. When a blackjack occurs for the dealer, of course, the hand is over, and the players' main bets are collected - unless a player also has blackjack, in which case it is a stand-off. Insurance is invariably not a good proposition for the player, unless they are quite sure that there are an unusually high number of ten-cards still left undealt. ⭐ Settlement: A bet once paid and collected is never returned. Thus, one key advantage to the dealer is that the player goes first. If the player goes bust, they have already lost their wager, even if the dealer goes bust as well. If the dealer goes over 21, the dealer pays each player who has stood the amount of that player's bet. If the dealer stands at 21 or less, the dealer pays the bet of any player having a higher total (not exceeding 21) and collects the bet of any player having a lower total. If there is a stand-off (a player having the same total as the dealer), no chips are paid out or collected. ⭐ Reshuffling: When each player's bet is settled, the dealer gathers in that player's cards and places them face up at the side against a clear plastic L-shaped shield. The dealer continues to deal from the shoe until coming to the plastic insert card, which indicates that it is time to reshuffle. Once that round of play is over, the dealer shuffles all the cards, prepares them for the cut, places the cards in the shoe, and the game continues. A pirate code, pirate articles or articles of agreement were a code of conduct for governing pirates. A group of sailors, on turning pirate, would draw up their own code or articles, which provided rules for discipline, division of stolen goods, and compensation for injured pirates. Buccaneers operated under a ship's articles that, among other things, governed conduct of the crew. These "articles of agreement" became authority independent of any nation, and were variously called the Chasse-Partie, Charter Party, Custom of the Coast, or Jamaica Discipline. In retrospect, these became known as the Pirate's Code. Pirate articles varied from one captain to another, and sometimes even from one voyage to another, but they were generally alike in including provisions for discipline, specifications for each crewmate's share of treasure, and compensation for the injured. Each crew member was asked to sign or make his mark on the articles, then swear an oath of allegiance or honour. The oath was sometimes taken on a Bible. Legend suggests that other pirates swore on crossed pistols, swords, or on a human skull. This act formally inducted the signer into the pirate crew, generally entitling him to vote for officers and on other "affairs of moment", to bear arms, and to his share of the plunder. The articles having been signed, they were then posted in a prominent place, often the door to the captain's cabin. After a cruise began, new recruits from captured ships would sometimes sign the articles, in some cases voluntarily, in other cases under threat of torture or death. Valuable sea artisans, such as carpenters and navigators, were especially likely to be forced to sign articles under duress, and would rarely be released regardless of their decision to sign or not. In some cases, even willing recruits would ask the pirates to pretend to force them to sign, so that they could plead they were forced should they ever be captured by the law. Generally, men who had not signed the articles had a much better chance of acquittal at trial if captured by the law. Pirate articles are closely related to, and were derived from, ship's articles of the time, especially those of privateers, which similarly provided for discipline and regulated distribution of booty (though usually far less equally than with pirate articles). Merchant articles and privateering articles can be traced back to Europe in the Middle Ages when there was a system of "joint hands" agreements between merchants, owners and seamen to share profits. Nine complete or nearly complete sets of piratical articles have survived, chiefly from Charles Johnson's A General History of the Pyrates, first published in 1724, and from records kept by Admiralty Court proceedings at the trials of pirates. A partial code from Henry Morgan is preserved in Alexandre Exquemelin's 1678 book The Buccaneers of America. Many other pirates are known to have had articles; the late-17th century Articles of George Cusack and Nicholas Clough have also survived intact. Part of the reason that few pirate articles have survived is that pirates on the verge of capture or surrender often burned their articles or threw them overboard to prevent the papers being used against them at trial. Articles of Bartholomew Roberts: Bartholomew Roberts (17 May 1682 – 10 February 1722), born John Roberts, was a Welsh pirate and the most successful pirate of the Golden Age of Piracy (measured by vessels captured), taking over 400 prizes in his career. Roberts raided ships off the Americas and the West African coast between 1719 and 1722; he is also noted for creating his own Pirate Code, and adopting an early variant of the Skull and Crossbones flag. Roberts' infamy and success saw him become known as The Great Pyrate and eventually as Black Bart (Welsh: Barti Ddu), and made him a popular subject for writers of both fiction and non-fiction. To this day, Roberts continues to feature in novels, films and video games (such as Assassin's Creed IV: Black Flag) as well as inspire fictional characters (such as the Dread Pirate Roberts). Bartholomew Roberts' Articles were similar (but not identical) to those of his former Captain, Howell Davis. In turn, Roberts' Articles influenced those of pirates such as Thomas Anstis who served under him and later went their own way. I. Every man has a vote in affairs of moment; has equal title to the fresh provisions, or strong liquors, at any time seized, and may use them at pleasure, unless a scarcity (not an uncommon thing among them) makes it necessary, for the good of all, to vote a retrenchment. II. Every man to be called fairly in turn, by list, on board of prizes because, (over and above their proper share) they were on these occasions allowed a shift of clothes: but if they defrauded the company to the value of a dollar in plate, jewels, or money, marooning was their punishment. If the robbery was only betwixt one another, they contented themselves with slitting the ears and nose of him that was guilty, and set him on shore, not in an uninhabited place, but somewhere, where he was sure to encounter hardships. III. No person to game at cards or dice for money. IV. The lights and candles to be put out at eight o'clock at night: if any of the crew, after that hour still remained inclined for drinking, they were to do it on the open deck. V. To keep their piece, pistols, and cutlass clean and fit for service. VI. No boy or woman to be allowed amongst them. If any man were to be found seducing any of the latter sex, and carried her to sea, disguised, he was to suffer death; (so that when any fell into their hands, as it chanced in the Onslow, they put a sentinel immediately over her to prevent ill consequences from so dangerous an instrument of division and quarrel; but then here lies the roguery; they contend who shall be sentinel, which happens generally to one of the greatest bullies, who, to secure the lady's virtue, will let none lie with her but himself.) VII. To desert the ship or their quarters in battle, was punished with death or marooning. VIII. No striking one another on board, but every man's quarrels to be ended on shore, at sword and pistol. (The quarter-master of the ship, when the parties will not come to any reconciliation, accompanies them on shore with what assistance he thinks proper, and turns the disputant back to back, at so many paces distance; at the word of command, they turn and fire immediately (or else the piece is knocked out of their hands). If both miss, they come to their cutlasses, and then he is declared the victor who draws the first blood.) IX. No man to talk of breaking up their way of living, till each had shared one thousand pounds. If in order to this, any man should lose a limb, or become a cripple in their service, he was to have eight hundred dollars, out of the public stock, and for lesser hurts, proportionately. X. The Captain and Quartermaster to receive two shares of a prize: the master, boatswain, and gunner, one share and a half, and other officers one and quarter. XI. The musicians to have rest on the Sabbath Day, but the other six days and nights, none without special favour. Articles of John Phillips: John Phillips (died April 18, 1724), he was an English pirate captain. He started his piratical career in 1721 under Thomas Anstis, and stole his own pirate vessel in 1723. He died in a surprise attack by his own prisoners. He is noted for the articles of his ship, the Revenge, one of only four complete sets of pirate articles to survive from the Golden Age of Piracy. Captain of the Revenge, also set a code for his men in 1724: I. Every Man Shall obey civil Command; the Captain shall have one full Share and a half of all Prizes; the Master, Carpenter, Boatswain and Gunner shall have one Share and quarter. II. If any Man shall offer to run away, or keep any Secret from the Company, he shall be marooned with one Bottle of Powder, one Bottle of Water, one small Arm, and Shot. III. If any Man shall steal any Thing in the Company, or game, to the Value of a Piece of Eight, he shall be marooned or shot. IV. If any time we shall meet another Marooner that Man shall sign his Articles without the Consent of our Company, shall suffer such Punishment as the Captain and Company shall think fit. V. That Man that shall strike another whilst these Articles are in force, shall receive Moses’ Law (that is, 40 Stripes lacking one) on the bare Back. VI. That Man that shall snap his Arms, or smoke Tobacco in the Hold, without a Cap to his Pipe, or carry a Candle lighted without a Lanthorn, shall suffer the same Punishment as in the former Article. VII. That Man shall not keep his Arms clean, fit for an Engagement, or neglect his Business, shall be cut off from his Share, and suffer such other Punishment as the Captain and the Company shall think fit. VIII. If any Man shall lose a Joint in time of an Engagement, shall have 400 Pieces of Eight ; if a Limb, 800. IX. If at any time you meet with a prudent Woman, that Man that offers to meddle with her, without her Consent, shall suffer present Death. Articles of Edward Low & George Lowther: Edward "Ned" Low (also spelled Lowe or Loe; 1690–1724) was a notorious pirate of English origin during the latter days of the Golden Age of Piracy, in the early 18th century. Low was born into poverty in Westminster, London and was a thief from an early age. He moved to Boston, Massachusetts as a young man. His wife died in childbirth in late 1719. Two years later, he became a pirate, operating off the coasts of New England and the Azores, and in the Caribbean. George Lowther (died 1723) was an 18th-century English pirate who, although little is known of his life, was active in the Caribbean and Atlantic. His First Mate was Edward Low. The articles listed below are attributed by the Boston News-Letter to Captain Edward Low. The first eight of these articles are essentially identical to those attributed to pirate captain George Lowther by Charles Johnson. Since Lowther and Low are known to have sailed together from about New Year's to May 28, 1722, it is probable that both reports are correct and that Low and Lowther shared the same articles, with Low's two extra articles being an ordinance, or amendment, adopted after the two crews separated. I. The Captain is to have two full Shares; the Quartermaster is to have one Share and one Half; The Doctor, Mate, Gunner and Boatswain, one Share and one Quarter. II. He that shall be found guilty of taking up any Unlawful Weapon on Board the Privateer or any other prize by us taken, so as to Strike or Abuse one another in any regard, shall suffer what Punishment the Captain and the Majority of the Company shall see fit. III. He that shall be found Guilty of Cowardice in the time of engagements, shall suffer what Punishment the Captain and the Majority of the Company shall think fit. IV. If any Gold, Jewels, Silver, &c. be found on Board of any Prize or Prizes to the value of a Piece of Eight, & the finder do not deliver it to the Quarter Master in the space of 24 hours he shall suffer what Punishment the Captain and the Majority of the Company shall think fit. V. He that is found Guilty of Gaming, or Defrauding one another to the value of a Royal of Plate, shall suffer what Punishment the Captain and the Majority of the Company shall think fit. VI. He that shall have the Misfortune to lose a Limb in time of Engagement, shall have the Sum of Six hundred pieces of Eight, and remain aboard as long as he shall think fit. VII. Good Quarters to be given when Craved. VIII. He that sees a Sail first, shall have the best Pistol or Small Arm aboard of her. IX. He that shall be guilty of Drunkenness in time of Engagement shall suffer what Punishment the Captain and Majority of the Company shall think fit. X. No snapping of Guns in the Hold. Articles of John Gow: John Gow (c. 1698–11 June 1725) was a notorious pirate whose short career was immortalized by Charles Johnson in the 1725 work The History and Lives of All the Most Notorious Pirates and Their Crews. Little is known of his life, except from an account by Daniel Defoe, which is often considered unreliable, the report on his execution, and an account by Mr. Alan Fea, descendant of his captor, published in 1912, almost two centuries after his death. A set of articles written in John Gow's own hand was found aboard his ship, the Revenge (née George), in 1729. Article IV's reference to no going ashore "till the ship is off the ground" suggests that the Revenge was already grounded when the articles were written, only days before Gow and his men were captured. The code states as follows: I. That every man shall obey his commander in all respects, as if the ship was his own, and as if he received monthly wages. II. That no man shall give, or dispose of, the ship's provisions; but every one shall have an equal share. III. That no man shall open, or declare to any person or persons, who they are, or what designs they are upon; and any persons so offending shall be punished with immediate death. IV. That no man shall go on shore till the ship is off the ground, and in readiness to put to sea. V. That every man shall keep his watch night and day; and at the hour of eight in the evening every one shall retire from gaming and drinking, in order to attend his respective station. VI. Every person who shall offend against any of these articles shall be punished with death, or in such other manner as the ship's company shall think proper. Articles of Henry Morgan and other buccaneers: Sir Henry Morgan (Welsh: Harri Morgan) 24 January 1635 – 25 August 1688) was a Welsh privateer, plantation owner, and, later, Lieutenant Governor of Jamaica. From his base in Port Royal, Jamaica, he raided settlements and shipping on the Spanish Main, becoming wealthy as he did so. With the prize money from the raids he purchased three large sugar plantations on the island. Exquemelin writes in general terms about the articles of late 17th century Caribbean buccaneers. Although he does not attribute these articles to any specific buccaneer captain, Exquemelin almost certainly sailed with Henry Morgan as a physician, and thus his account likely reflects Morgan's articles more accurately than any other privateer or buccaneer of the time. Exquemelin writes that the buccaneers "agree on certain articles, which are put in writing, by way of bond or obligation, which every one is bound to observe, and all of them, or the chief, set their hands to it." Although Exquemelin does not number the articles, the following approximately reflects his description of the buccaneers' laws: I. The fund of all payments under the articles is the stock of what is gotten by the expedition, following the same law as other pirates, that is, No prey, no pay. II. Compensation is provided the Captain for the use of his ship, and the salary of the carpenter, or shipwright, who mended, careened, and rigged the vessel (the latter usually about 150 pieces of eight). A sum for provisions and victuals is specified, usually 200 pieces of eight. A salary and compensation is specified for the surgeon and his medicine chest, usually 250 pieces of eight. III. A standard compensation is provided for maimed and mutilated buccaneers. "Thus they order for the loss of a right arm six hundred pieces of eight, or six slaves ; for the loss of a left arm five hundred pieces of eight, or five slaves ; for a right leg five hundred pieces of eight, or five slaves ; for the left leg four hundred pieces of eight, or four slaves ; for an eye one hundred pieces of eight, or one slave ; for a finger of the hand the same reward as for the eye. IV. Shares of booty are provided as follows: "the Captain, or chief Commander, is allotted five or six portions to what the ordinary seamen have ; the Master's Mate only two ; and Officers proportionate to their employment. After whom they draw equal parts from the highest even to the lowest mariner, the boys not being omitted. For even these draw half a share, by reason that, when they happen to take a better vessel than their own, it is the duty of the boys to set fire to the ship or boat wherein they are, and then retire to the prize which they have taken." V. "In the prizes they take, it is severely prohibited to every one to usurp anything, in particular to themselves. ... Yea, they make a solemn oath to each other not to abscond, or conceal the least thing they find amongst the prey. If afterwards any one is found unfaithful, who has contravened the said oath, immediately he is separated and turned out of the society." Every brand has a unique logo and there is a small story behind every design. Here are some of the most famous supercar brand logos. ⭐ Lamborghini: In the early sixties, Ferruccio Lamborghini spent time with Don Eduardo Miura, a breeder of prized Spanish fighting bulls, at his home in Seville. These almost regal animals had such an effect on Lamborghini that he decided that the logo of his namesake would feature the raging bull. ⭐ Ferrari: The elegant prancing horse is almost instantly recognizable as the symbol for Italian exotic manufacturer, Ferrari. However, this prancing horse was actually painted on the fuselage of an Italian fighter plane during World War I. The mother of the heroic fight pilot, asked Enzo Ferrari to put the prancing horse on all of his cars. She claimed it will bring good luck. Almost 100 years later, it is still there. ⭐ Chevrolet: The "Bowtie" emblem representing one of the big three in American cars actually has its roots overseas. It has been said that the "bowtie" emblem, first used in 1914 was the design of the wallpaper in a French hotel room that GM founder William Durant occupied. ⭐ BMW: While it has long been assumed that the BMW logo is a representation of the rotation of a propeller, that has actually been proven to be more myth than reality. The true story is that when BMW emerged as a result of a restructuring of Rapp Motorenworke, BMW wanted to maintain the dynamic of the Rapp logo and layout. Additionally, the blue and white colors are the predominate colors of the Bavarian flag. ⭐Subaru: Named after the Japanese word for the Pleiades star cluster, the Subaru six star logo represents the companies that merged together to form Fuji Heavy Industries - of which Subaru is the automotive manufacturer. ⭐ Mercedes-Benz: The Mercedes-Benz three pointed star logo can be traced back to 1870, when Gottlieb Daimler sent his wife a postcard with he star on it. It was his desire to see the three pointed star on top of all of their factories, indicating their triumph over "land, sea, and air." ⭐Volvo: The Volvo emblem is actually a fairly close representation of the Mars symbol, which also symbolized the Roman God of War. This symbol is interpreted as masculine. Since the Beginning, Volvo founders wanted a symbol of Strength for their cars and this certainly fit the bill. ⭐ Cadillac: The American luxury takes its name from French explorer Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac, the founder of Detroit, and the company crest is based on the Cadillac family coat of arms (which the explorer may have invented himself). The symbols included three colored bands (representing boldness, virtue and valor), a crown, a wreath, and several small Merganser ducks. Earlier versions of the Cadillac logo included the ducks, which have since been removed. ⭐Audi: Like many automobile manufacturers, Audi consolidated multiple companies into a single business during the 20th century. An early logo shows the four original company names (Audi, DKW, Horch and Wanderer) each within their own ring. The text disappeared, but the interlocking rings have remained. ⭐ Saab: The mythical red griffin crowned in gold represents the Swedish province of Scania, or Skane, the original location of Swedish car and truck manufacturer AB Skania-Vabis, which merged with Saab Automobile in 1969. The griffin symbol was not used on Saab vehicles until 1984. After GM bought Saab in 2000, they redesigned the logo, and under some form of agreement both companies used the griffin, even though the trademark stayed with Scania. After Saab’s bankruptcy and eventual purchase by National Electric Vehicle Sweden, Scania decided to not let the new Saab use the logo. As a result, Saab's today have a simple text logo. ⭐ Maserati: The Italian company was headed by three brothers, but it was a fourth Maserati brother, artist Mario, who created the company logo. He designed a trident based on the statue of the Roman god Neptune in the Piazza Maggiore in Bologna, and added red and blue to acknowledge that city. ⭐ Porsche: The Porsche logo combines elements from two coats of arms: the Free State of Wurttemberg in western Germany, and its former capital, Stuttgart. ⭐ Buick: The Detroit-based company’s first real logo borrowed heavily from the ancestral homeland of founder David Dunbar Buick, incorporating elements like a Scottish coat of arms, including a large crest, gold cross, and deer head. In 1959 the red, white and blue tri-shield emerged, representing the LeSabre, Invicta, and Electra models that made up the day’s Buick lineup. ⭐ Mitsubishi: Mitsu means three in Japanese, while hishi, or bishi, refers to the diamond or rhombus-shaped water chestnut plant. The Mitsubishi logo references the family crest of founder Yatoro Iwasaki and the logo of his first employer, the Yamanouchi, or Tosa Clan. ⭐Peugeot: Originally a French grain mill, Peugeot diversified into steel production, tool and bicycle making, and, by the late 1890's, automobile manufacturing. Brothers Jules and Emile commissioned a logo in the mid-19th century to be used on all its products. The lion emblem was first added to a car model in 1905, and has become increasingly stylized since then, with the more abstract lion first appearing in 1975. ‘‘Lamb to the Slaughter’’ demonstrates Dahl's ability to reflect aspects of human perversity, cruelty and violence in adult fiction. His presentation features a cynically detached narrator, and elements of black comedy. The horror of this story prefigures the grotesqueness seen in the author's later work for children, including James and the Giant Peach and Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. The main character, Mary Maloney, has also been noted among one of the most complex characters in short stories, from her drastic change portrayed by Roald Dahl. Lamb to the Slaughter by Roald Dahl (1916-1990) Word Count: 3899 The room was warm and clean, the curtains drawn, the two table lamps alight-hers and the one by the empty chair opposite. On the sideboard behind her, two tall glasses, soda water, whiskey. Fresh ice cubes in the Thermos bucket. Mary Maloney was waiting for her husband to come him from work. Now and again she would glance up at the clock, but without anxiety, merely to please herself with the thought that each minute gone by made it nearer the time when he would come. There was a slow smiling air about her, and about everything she did. The drop of a head as she bent over her sewing was curiously tranquil. Her skin -for this was her sixth month with child-had acquired a wonderful translucent quality, the mouth was soft, and the eyes, with their new placid look, seemed larger darker than before. When the clock said ten minutes to five, she began to listen, and a few moments later, punctually as always, she heard the tires on the gravel outside, and the car door slamming, the footsteps passing the window, the key turning in the lock. She laid aside her sewing, stood up, and went forward to kiss him as he came in. “Hullo darling,” she said. “Hullo darling,” he answered. She took his coat and hung it in the closer. Then she walked over and made the drinks, a strongish one for him, a weak one for herself; and soon she was back again in her chair with the sewing, and he in the other, opposite, holding the tall glass with both hands, rocking it so the ice cubes tinkled against the side. For her, this was always a blissful time of day. She knew he didn’t want to speak much until the first drink was finished, and she, on her side, was content to sit quietly, enjoying his company after the long hours alone in the house. She loved to luxuriate in the presence of this man, and to feel-almost as a sunbather feels the sun-that warm male glow that came out of him to her when they were alone together. She loved him for the way he sat loosely in a chair, for the way he came in a door, or moved slowly across the room with long strides. She loved intent, far look in his eyes when they rested in her, the funny shape of the mouth, and especially the way he remained silent about his tiredness, sitting still with himself until the whiskey had taken some of it away. “Tired darling?” “Yes,” he said. “I’m tired,” And as he spoke, he did an unusual thing. He lifted his glass and drained it in one swallow although there was still half of it, at least half of it left.. She wasn’t really watching him, but she knew what he had done because she heard the ice cubes falling back against the bottom of the empty glass when he lowered his arm. He paused a moment, leaning forward in the chair, then he got up and went slowly over to fetch himself another. “I’ll get it!” she cried, jumping up. “Sit down,” he said. When he came back, she noticed that the new drink was dark amber with the quantity of whiskey in it. “Darling, shall I get your slippers?” “No.” She watched him as he began to sip the dark yellow drink, and she could see little oily swirls in the liquid because it was so strong. “I think it’s a shame,” she said, “that when a policeman gets to be as senior as you, they keep him walking about on his feet all day long.” He didn’t answer, so she bent her head again and went on with her sewing; bet each time he lifted the drink to his lips, she heard the ice cubes clinking against the side of the glass. “Darling,” she said. “Would you like me to get you some cheese? I haven’t made any supper because it’s Thursday.” “No,” he said. “If you’re too tired to eat out,” she went on, “it’s still not too late. There’s plenty of meat and stuff in the freezer, and you can have it right here and not even move out of the chair.” Her eyes waited on him for an answer, a smile, a little nod, but he made no sign. “Anyway,” she went on, “I’ll get you some cheese and crackers first.” “I don’t want it,” he said. She moved uneasily in her chair, the large eyes still watching his face. “But you must eat! I’ll fix it anyway, and then you can have it or not, as you like.” She stood up and placed her sewing on the table by the lamp. “Sit down,” he said. “Just for a minute, sit down.” It wasn’t till then that she began to get frightened. “Go on,” he said. “Sit down.” She lowered herself back slowly into the chair, watching him all the time with those large, bewildered eyes. He had finished the second drink and was staring down into the glass, frowning. “Listen,” he said. “I’ve got something to tell you.” “What is it, darling? What’s the matter?” He had now become absolutely motionless, and he kept his head down so that the light from the lamp beside him fell across the upper part of his face, leaving the chin and mouth in shadow. She noticed there was a little muscle moving near the corner of his left eye. “This is going to be a bit of a shock to you, I’m afraid,” he said. “But I’ve thought about it a good deal and I’ve decided the only thing to do is tell you right away. I hope you won’t blame me too much.” And he told her. It didn’t take long, four or five minutes at most, and she say very still through it all, watching him with a kind of dazed horror as he went further and further away from her with each word. “So there it is,” he added. “And I know it’s kind of a bad time to be telling you, bet there simply wasn’t any other way. Of course I’ll give you money and see you’re looked after. But there needn’t really be any fuss. I hope not anyway. It wouldn’t be very good for my job.” Her first instinct was not to believe any of it, to reject it all. It occurred to her that perhaps he hadn’t even spoken, that she herself had imagined the whole thing. Maybe, if she went about her business and acted as though she hadn’t been listening, then later, when she sort of woke up again, she might find none of it had ever happened. “I’ll get the supper,” she managed to whisper, and this time he didn’t stop her. When she walked across the room she couldn’t feel her feet touching the floor. She couldn’t feel anything at all- except a slight nausea and a desire to vomit. Everything was automatic now-down the steps to the cellar, the light switch, the deep freeze, the hand inside the cabinet taking hold of the first object it met. She lifted it out, and looked at it. It was wrapped in paper, so she took off the paper and looked at it again. A leg of lamb. All right then, they would have lamb for supper. She carried it upstairs, holding the thin bone-end of it with both her hands, and as she went through the living-room, she saw him standing over by the window with his back to her, and she stopped. “For God’s sake,” he said, hearing her, but not turning round. “Don’t make supper for me. I’m going out.” At that point, Mary Maloney simply walked up behind him and without any pause she swung the big frozen leg of lamb high in the air and brought it down as hard as she could on the back of his head. She might just as well have hit him with a steel club. She stepped back a pace, waiting, and the funny thing was that he remained standing there for at least four or five seconds, gently swaying. Then he crashed to the carpet. The violence of the crash, the noise, the small table overturning, helped bring her out of the shock. She came out slowly, feeling cold and surprised, and she stood for a while blinking at the body, still holding the ridiculous piece of meat tight with both hands. All right, she told herself. So I’ve killed him. It was extraordinary, now, how clear her mind became all of a sudden. She began thinking very fast. As the wife of a detective, she knew quite well what the penalty would be. That was fine. It made no difference to her. In fact, it would be a relief. On the other hand, what about the child? What were the laws about murderers with unborn children? Did they kill then both-mother and child? Or did they wait until the tenth month? What did they do? Mary Maloney didn’t know. And she certainly wasn’t prepared to take a chance. She carried the meat into the kitchen, placed it in a pan, turned the oven on high, and shoved t inside. Then she washed her hands and ran upstairs to the bedroom. She sat down before the mirror, tidied her hair, touched up her lops and face. She tried a smile. It came out rather peculiar. She tried again. “Hullo Sam,” she said brightly, aloud. The voice sounded peculiar too. “I want some potatoes please, Sam. Yes, and I think a can of peas.” That was better. Both the smile and the voice were coming out better now. She rehearsed it several times more. Then she ran downstairs, took her coat, went out the back door, down the garden, into the street. It wasn’t six o’clock yet and the lights were still on in the grocery shop. “Hullo Sam,” she said brightly, smiling at the man behind the counter. “Why, good evening, Mrs. Maloney. How’re you?” “I want some potatoes please, Sam. Yes, and I think a can of peas.” The man turned and reached up behind him on the shelf for the peas. “Patrick’s decided he’s tired and doesn’t want to eat out tonight,” she told him. “We usually go out Thursdays, you know, and now he’s caught me without any vegetables in the house.” “Then how about meat, Mrs. Maloney?” “No, I’ve got meat, thanks. I got a nice leg of lamb from the freezer.” “Oh.” “I don’t know much like cooking it frozen, Sam, but I’m taking a chance on it this time. You think it’ll be all right?” “Personally,” the grocer said, “I don’t believe it makes any difference. You want these Idaho potatoes?” “Oh yes, that’ll be fine. Two of those.” “Anything else?” The grocer cocked his head on one side, looking at her pleasantly. “How about afterwards? What you going to give him for afterwards?” “Well-what would you suggest, Sam?” The man glanced around his shop. “How about a nice big slice of cheesecake? I know he likes that.” “Perfect,” she said. “He loves it.” And when it was all wrapped and she had paid, she put on her brightest smile and said, “Thank you, Sam. Goodnight.” “Goodnight, Mrs. Maloney. And thank you.” And now, she told herself as she hurried back, all she was doing now, she was returning home to her husband and he was waiting for his supper; and she must cook it good, and make it as tasty as possible because the poor man was tired; and if, when she entered the house, she happened to find anything unusual, or tragic, or terrible, then naturally it would be a shock and she’d become frantic with grief and horror. Mind you, she wasn’t expecting to find anything. She was just going home with the vegetables. Mrs. Patrick Maloney going home with the vegetables on Thursday evening to cook supper for her husband. That’s the way, she told herself. Do everything right and natural. Keep things absolutely natural and there’ll be no need for any acting at all. Therefore, when she entered the kitchen by the back door, she was humming a little tune to herself and smiling. “Patrick!” she called. “How are you, darling?” She put the parcel down on the table and went through into the living room; and when she saw him lying there on the floor with his legs doubled up and one arm twisted back underneath his body, it really was rather a shock. All the old love and longing for him welled up inside her, and she ran over to him, knelt down beside him, and began to cry her heart out. It was easy. No acting was necessary. A few minutes later she got up and went to the phone. She know the number of the police station, and when the man at the other end answered, she cried to him, “Quick! Come quick! Patrick’s dead!” “Who’s speaking?” “Mrs. Maloney. Mrs. Patrick Maloney.” “You mean Patrick Maloney’s dead?” “I think so,” she sobbed. “He’s lying on the floor and I think he’s dead.” “Be right over,” the man said. The car came very quickly, and when she opened the front door, two policeman walked in. She know them both-she know nearly all the man at that precinct-and she fell right into a chair, then went over to join the other one, who was called O’Malley, kneeling by the body. “Is he dead?” she cried. “I’m afraid he is. What happened?” Briefly, she told her story about going out to the grocer and coming back to find him on the floor. While she was talking, crying and talking, Noonan discovered a small patch of congealed blood on the dead man’s head. He showed it to O’Malley who got up at once and hurried to the phone. Soon, other men began to come into the house. First a doctor, then two detectives, one of whom she know by name. Later, a police photographer arrived and took pictures, and a man who know about fingerprints. There was a great deal of whispering and muttering beside the corpse, and the detectives kept asking her a lot of questions. But they always treated her kindly. She told her story again, this time right from the beginning, when Patrick had come in, and she was sewing, and he was tired, so tired he hadn’t wanted to go out for supper. She told how she’d put the meat in the oven-”it’s there now, cooking”- and how she’d slopped out to the grocer for vegetables, and come back to find him lying on the floor. Which grocer?” one of the detectives asked. She told him, and he turned and whispered something to the other detective who immediately went outside into the street. In fifteen minutes he was back with a page of notes, and there was more whispering, and through her sobbing she heard a few of the whispered phrases-”...acted quite normal...very cheerful...wanted to give him a good supper…peas...cheesecake...impossible that she...” After a while, the photographer and the doctor departed and two other men came in and took the corpse away on a stretcher. Then the fingerprint man went away. The two detectives remained, and so did the two policeman. They were exceptionally nice to her, and Jack Noonan asked if she wouldn’t rather go somewhere else, to her sister’s house perhaps, or to his own wife who would take care of her and put her up for the night. No, she said. She didn’t feel she could move even a yard at the moment. Would they mind awfully of she stayed just where she was until she felt better. She didn’t feel too good at the moment, she really didn’t. Then hadn’t she better lie down on the bed? Jack Noonan asked. No, she said. She’d like to stay right where she was, in this chair. A little later, perhaps, when she felt better, she would move. So they left her there while they went about their business, searching the house. Occasionally one of the detectives asked her another question. Sometimes Jack Noonan spoke at her gently as he passed by. Her husband, he told her, had been killed by a blow on the back of the head administered with a heavy blunt instrument, almost certainly a large piece of metal. They were looking for the weapon. The murderer may have taken it with him, but on the other hand he may have thrown it away or hidden it somewhere on the premises. “It’s the old story,” he said. “Get the weapon, and you’ve got the man.” Later, one of the detectives came up and sat beside her. Did she know, he asked, of anything in the house that could’ve been used as the weapon? Would she mind having a look around to see if anything was missing-a very big spanner, for example, or a heavy metal vase. They didn’t have any heavy metal vases, she said. “Or a big spanner?” She didn’t think they had a big spanner. But there might be some things like that in the garage. The search went on. She knew that there were other policemen in the garden all around the house. She could hear their footsteps on the gravel outside, and sometimes she saw a flash of a torch through a chink in the curtains. It began to get late, nearly nine she noticed by the clock on the mantle. The four men searching the rooms seemed to be growing weary, a trifle exasperated. “Jack,” she said, the next tome Sergeant Noonan went by. “Would you mind giving me a drink?” “Sure I’ll give you a drink. You mean this whiskey?” “Yes please. But just a small one. It might make me feel better.” He handed her the glass. “Why don’t you have one yourself,” she said. “You must be awfully tired. Please do. You’ve been very good to me.” “Well,” he answered. “It’s not strictly allowed, but I might take just a drop to keep me going.” One by one the others came in and were persuaded to take a little nip of whiskey. They stood around rather awkwardly with the drinks in their hands, uncomfortable in her presence, trying to say consoling things to her. Sergeant Noonan wandered into the kitchen, come out quickly and said, “Look, Mrs. Maloney. You know that oven of yours is still on, and the meat still inside.” “Oh dear me!” she cried. “So it is!” “I better turn it off for you, hadn’t I?” “Will you do that, Jack. Thank you so much.” When the sergeant returned the second time, she looked at him with her large, dark tearful eyes. “Jack Noonan,” she said. “Yes?” “Would you do me a small favor-you and these others?” “We can try, Mrs. Maloney.” “Well,” she said. “Here you all are, and good friends of dear Patrick’s too, and helping to catch the man who killed him. You must be terrible hungry by now because it’s long past your suppertime, and I know Patrick would never forgive me, God bless his soul, if I allowed you to remain in his house without offering you decent hospitality. Why don’t you eat up that lamb that’s in the oven. It’ll be cooked just right by now.” “Wouldn’t dream of it,” Sergeant Noonan said. “Please,” she begged. “Please eat it. Personally I couldn’t tough a thing, certainly not what’s been in the house when he was here. But it’s all right for you. It’d be a favor to me if you’d eat it up. Then you can go on with your work again afterwards.” There was a good deal of hesitating among the four policemen, but they were clearly hungry, and in the end they were persuaded to go into the kitchen and help themselves. The woman stayed where she was, listening to them speaking among themselves, their voices thick and sloppy because their mouths were full of meat. “Have some more, Charlie?” “No. Better not finish it.” “She wants us to finish it. She said so. Be doing her a favor.” “Okay then. Give me some more.” “That’s the hell of a big club the gut must’ve used to hit poor Patrick,” one of them was saying. “The doc says his skull was smashed all to pieces just like from a sledgehammer.” “That’s why it ought to be easy to find.” “Exactly what I say.” “Whoever done it, they’re not going to be carrying a thing like that around with them longer than they need.” One of them belched. “Personally, I think it’s right here on the premises.” “Probably right under our very noses. What you think, Jack?” And in the other room, Mary Maloney began to giggle. The Rockefeller name is one so deeply entrenched in different spheres across the United States that it is perhaps unlike any other legacy the world’s largest economy has ever known. From the oil industry and banking to Wall Street, higher education, medical research and the arts, the Rockefeller's have had an unquestionable impact on the spheres in which they worked. The First Rockefeller: John Davison Rockefeller Sr. (July 8, 1839 - May 23, 1937) was an American business magnate and philanthropist. He is widely considered the wealthiest American of all time, and the richest person in modern history. Rockefeller was born into a large family in upstate New York that moved several times before eventually settling in Cleveland, Ohio. Rockefeller became an assistant bookkeeper at age 16 and went into several business partnerships beginning at age 20, concentrating his business on oil refining. Rockefeller founded the Standard Oil Company in 1870. He ran it until 1897, and remained its largest shareholder. Rockefeller's wealth soared as kerosene and gasoline grew in importance, and he became the richest person in the country, controlling 90% of all oil in the United States at his peak. Oil was used throughout the country as a light source until the introduction of electricity, and as a fuel after the invention of the automobile. Furthermore, Rockefeller gained enormous influence over the railroad industry which transported his oil around the country. Standard Oil was the first great business trust in the United States. Rockefeller revolutionized the petroleum industry and, through corporate and technological innovations, was instrumental in both widely disseminating and drastically reducing the production cost of oil. His company and business practices came under criticism, particularly in the writings of author Ida Tarbell. The Supreme Court ruled in 1911 that Standard Oil must be dismantled for violation of federal antitrust laws. It was broken up into 34 separate entities, which included companies that became ExxonMobil, Chevron Corporation, and others - some of which still have the highest level of revenue in the world. Individual pieces of the company were worth more than the whole, as shares of these doubled and tripled in value in their early years; consequently, Rockefeller became the country's first billionaire, with a fortune worth nearly 2% of the national economy. His peak net worth was estimated at US$418 billion (in 2019 dollars; inflation-adjusted) in 1913. The 409 billion figure assumes a 2% share of US GDP in 2016. His personal wealth, 900 million in 1913, more than 2% of US GDP of 39.1 billion that year was worth 21 billion dollars in 2016 adjusted for inflation (by 1937 the Rockefeller fortune was 1.4 billion or 1.5% of GDP of 92 billion). Considered the single wealthiest person to ever live. Rockefeller spent much of the last 40 years of his life in retirement at his estate in Westchester County, New York, defining the structure of modern philanthropy, along with other key industrialists such as steel magnate Andrew Carnegie. His fortune was mainly used to create the modern systematic approach of targeted philanthropy through the creation of foundations that had a major effect on medicine, education, and scientific research. His foundations pioneered the development of medical research and were instrumental in the near-eradication of hookworm and yellow fever in the United States. The Next In Line: After graduation, John Davison Rockefeller Jr. joined his father's business in October 1897, setting up operations in the newly formed family office at 26 Broadway where he became a director of Standard Oil. He later also became a director at J. P. Morgan's U.S. Steel company, which had been formed in 1901. Jr. resigned from both companies in 1910. In September 1913, the United Mine Workers of America declared a strike against the Colorado Fuel and Iron (CF&I) company in what would become the Colorado Coalfield War. Junior owned a controlling interest in CF&I (40% of its stock) and sat on the board as an absentee director. In April 1914, after a long period of industrial unrest, the Ludlow Massacre occurred at a tent camp occupied by striking miners. At least 20 men, women, and children died in the slaughter. This was followed by nine days of violence between miners and the Colorado National Guard. Although he did not order the attack that began this unrest, there are accounts to suggest Jr. was mostly to blame for the violence, with the awful working conditions, death ratio, and no paid dead work which included securing unstable ceilings, workers were forced into working in unsafe conditions just to make ends meet. In January 1915, Jr. was called to testify before the Commission on Industrial Relations. Many critics blamed Rockefeller for ordering the massacre. He was at the time being advised by William Lyon Mackenzie King and the pioneer public relations expert, Ivy Lee. Lee warned that the Rockefellers were losing public support and developed a strategy that Jr. followed to repair it. It was necessary for Jr. to overcome his shyness, go personally to Colorado to meet with the miners and their families, inspect the conditions of the homes and the factories, attend social events, and especially to listen closely to the grievances. This was novel advice, and attracted widespread media attention, which opened the way to resolve the conflict, and present a more humanized version of the Rockefeller's. Mackenzie King said Rockefeller's testimony was the turning point in Junior's life, restoring the reputation of the family name; it also heralded a new era of industrial relations in the country. During the Great Depression, he was involved in the financing, development, and construction of the Rockefeller Center, a vast office complex in midtown Manhattan, and as a result became one of the largest real estate holders in New York City. He was influential in attracting leading blue-chip corporations as tenants in the complex, including GE and its then affiliates RCA, NBC and RKO, as well as Standard Oil of New Jersey (now ExxonMobil), Associated Press, Time Inc, and branches of Chase National Bank (now JP Morgan Chase). In 1921, Junior received about 10% of the shares of the Equitable Trust Company from his father, making him the bank's largest shareholder. Subsequently, in 1930, Equitable merged with Chase National Bank, making Chase the largest bank in the world at the time. Although his stock-holding was reduced to about 4% following this merger, he was still the largest shareholder in what became known as "the Rockefeller bank." As late as the 1960's, the family still retained about 1% of the bank's shares, by which time his son David had become the bank's president. In the late 1920's, JD Rockefeller Jr. founded the Dunbar National Bank in Harlem. The financial institution was located within the Paul Laurence Dunbar Apartments at 2824 Eighth Avenue near 150th Street, servicing a primarily African-American clientele. It was unique among New York City financial institutions in that it employed African Americans as tellers, clerks and bookkeepers as well as in key management positions. However, the bank folded after only a few years of operation. Family Like No Other: While Abby Rockefeller pursued charitable work out of the public limelight, her five brothers each carved a reputation in their own right, weaving through the interconnected spheres of business, politics and philanthropy in a manner unlike that of any family in US history. The eldest of the brothers, John III, devoted his life to foreign affairs and philanthropy. Inspired by a trip around the world following his graduation, John III developed a deep interest in Asia that resulted in the creation of the Asia Society and the Council on Economic and Cultural Affairs. John III was also responsible for the Population Council, the first such organisation to bring issues of overpopulation to the fore, and the Lincoln Centre, now one of the world’s leading performing arts centre's. John III also founded and supported numerous NGOs before his untimely death in a car crash in 1978. Nelson was perhaps the most high profile of the siblings. Despite his father’s efforts to instill in him the values of restraint and modesty, Nelson always had grand plans and spoke about becoming president from childhood. After a stint at Chase Manhattan Bank, he went on to lead the development of the Rockefeller Centre through a tumultuous economic period, eventually serving as its president. Nelson then entered politics, transforming the New York skyline through the numerous construction projects he instigated while serving as Governor of New York for four terms between 1953 and 1973. He then served as Vice President of the US under President Gerald Ford between 1974 and 1977. Laurance also had a big impact on New York, but via Wall Street, as a pioneer in venture capitalism. During his decades on the New York Stock Exchange, Laurance invested in hundreds of start-ups that focused on electronics, aviation, computers and biotechnology. Laurance had a talent for sensing the next big thing, as can be seen in his early investments in Apple and Intel. He was also a keen environmentalist and was instrumental in establishing and expanding numerous national parks throughout the US, from Wyoming to Hawaii. Lessons in modesty worked for Winthrop, who was unwilling to merely waltz his way to the top based on his family name alone. Instead, he started his career as an apprentice working in his family’s oilfields. After the Second World War, Winthrop went into politics and became famous for the profound cultural and economic change he propelled in the state of Arkansas while serving as governor between 1967 and 1971. He introduced the state’s first minimum wage and the freedom of information law, and tightened insurance legislation, to name but a few examples. The youngest brother, David, was a powerful force on Wall Street, as well as an incredibly influential individual who traversed the highest echelons of society. After graduating from the London School of Economics, David went on to gain a PhD from the University of Chicago in 1940. David’s first job, which involved writing letters for the Mayor of New York, came to a grinding halt – like so many others – as a result of the Second World War. Choosing to forgo the use of his family name, David enlisted as a private, rising to the rank of captain during his service in the US Army. After the war, David joined the company in which he would stay for the entirety of his professional career: Chase Manhattan Bank. Given that his uncle Winthrop Aldrich was chairman of the bank and his father and grandfather were its largest shareholders, David was unsurprisingly deemed to be nothing more than a spoiled rich kid upon arrival. However, he soon proved his worth, while his habit of getting the public subway to work every day helped to chip away at the spoiled status. His hard work saw him make his own way to the top, becoming co-CEO in 1960 and sole CEO in 1969. During his time at the helm, David used his worldwide network to increase the bank’s foreign branches from 11 to 73, with Chase Bank becoming the first western bank to open branches in China and Russia, securing its position as a truly global institution. David was also responsible for re-energising the bank from within, creating HR, planning and marketing departments with the help of none other than the ‘father of management’, Peter Drucker. Though the 1970s proved difficult, David held the role of CEO until retiring in 1981. When David joined Chase Bank in 1946, it was a $4.8bn institution. By 1981, it was worth $76.2bn in assets. “Well, he was the banker of all bankers”, Cox commented. As a result of two vast mergers, the bank is today the biggest in the US. Changing The world: There are questions to be asked about how one man or family can possibly come to accumulate such incredible wealth as that of the Rockefeller's. There are aspects of John’s strategy that were aggressive and noncompetitive. However, this approach to making mergers and acquisitions is one that has since become a standard business practice. Through his willingness to do things differently, John laid the groundwork for an industry that is integral to the global economy, and an area of commerce that has spurred the development and innovation of countless others. At a time when oil was expensive and much of it was wasted, John made the production process far more efficient and cost effective, thereby making kerosene affordable for the masses – so much so that it soon overtook whale and coal oil (and even electricity for some time) as fuels, lighting up America street by street. John’s resourcefulness also prompted the development of some 300 oil by-products, ranging from paints and lubricating oils to anesthetics. In this respect, he changed the nature of doing business, establishing efficiency as the baseline. “He didn’t come from the establishment. He was in very many ways - I suppose this makes the story rather heroic - a self-made man. - Professor Michael Cox, Emeritus Professor of International Relations at the London School of Economics. A prominent family originating from Germany, established banking and finance houses in Europe beginning in the 18th century. Pioneers in providing capital for business and financing infrastructure projects, such as railways and the Suez Canal, the Rothschilds molded the way the international world of high finance works today. The Rothschild empire had its genesis during the 1760's when Mayer Amschel Rothschild (1744 - 1812) founded a banking business in his native Frankfurt, in the German duchy of Hesse. Over time, and with the help of his five sons, the family business expanded throughout several European countries. Mayer Amschel Rothschild - Founding Father Of International Finance: The Rothschilds’ empire had humble beginnings. Its founder, Mayer Amschel Rothschild, was born in 1744 and raised in Frankfurt’s Jewish ghetto. During that era, Jews were legally required to live in small communities that were separate from Christians. They were also not allowed to leave their villages at night, on Sundays, or on Christian holidays. As a child, Rothschild learned about the business world at an early age. His father, Amschel Moses Rothschild, traded coins and other commodities for a living. One of Amschel Rothschild’s clients was Crown Prince Wilhelm of Hesse. Mayer Rothschild became an orphan at age 12 when his mother and father died in a smallpox epidemic. Shortly after his 13th birthday, he decided to take an apprenticeship with a banking firm in Hanover, Germany. During his time there, Rothschild learned the ins and outs of banking and foreign trade from bankers who used their extensive connections and financial skills to advise and serve the reigning nobility; some of these bankers had risen to the status of what was known as "court Jews," or court factors. The Beginnings Of A Banking Empire: Rothschild returned to his hometown of Frankfurt when he turned 19. Along with his brothers, he continued the commodities and money-trading business their father started and also sold rare coins. Through his rare coin business, Rothschild met Crown Prince Wilhelm, who in 1785 became Wilhelm IX, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel and eventually the European continent’s richest man. Rothschild was soon providing other banking services to Wilhelm and a number of nobles, and by 1769, he was given the title of court factor. In 1770, he married and went on to have 10 children (five sons and five daughters). Expanding & Controlling The Rothschild Footprint: The Rothschild banking empire benefited tremendously from the French Revolution. During the war, Rothschild facilitated monetary transactions for Hessian mercenary soldiers. Around that same time, Rothschild sent his sons to live in the capital cities of various European countries with the goal of establishing banking businesses in Naples, Vienna, Paris, and London, in addition to Frankfurt. With Mayer Rothschild’s children spread across Europe, the five linked branches became, in effect, the first bank to transcend borders. Lending to governments to finance war operations over several centuries provided the Rothschild family with ample opportunity to accumulate bonds and build additional wealth in a range of different industries. ★ Amschel Mayer Rothschild (1773 - 1855): Frankfurt ★ Salomon Mayer Rothschild (1774 - 1855): Vienna ★ Nathan Mayer Rothschild (1777 - 1836): London ★ Calmann Mayer Rothschild (1788 - 1855): Naples ★ Jakob Mayer Rothschild (1792 - 1868): Paris Before he died in 1812, Mayer Rothschild left strict rules for his descendants on how they should handle the family’s finances. He wanted to keep the fortune within the family and, as such, encouraged the arrangement of marriages among relatives. His will barred female descendants from any direct inheritance. Without an inheritance, female Rothschilds had few possible marriage partners of the same religion and suitable economic and social stature, except other Rothschilds. Rothschild brides bound the family together. Four of Mayer’s granddaughters married grandsons, and one married her uncle. Nathan Mayer Rothschild - International Financier: Of the four Rothschilds who ventured out, third son Nathan (1777 – 1836) achieved the greatest success. Nathan took over the lead role in pioneering international finance. Moving to England in 1798. There he founded a textile business with £20,000 of working capital, the equivalent of £2 million today. He eventually founded a bank, which became N.M. Rothschild & Sons Ltd. Like the other Rothschild banks that were subsequently set up throughout Europe, N.M. Rothschild & Sons Ltd. furnished credit to the government during times of war and crisis. During the Napoleonic Wars, for example, it managed and financed various subsidies the British government sent to its different allies and lent funds to pay the British troops, almost single-handedly financing the British war effort. In 1824, he and Moses Montefiore co-founded the Alliance Assurance Company, which lives on today as RSA Insurance Group. Nathan also gained the rights to the Almaden mines from the Spanish government in 1835, securing a European monopoly on mercury, which was used to refine gold and silver. The supply of the chemical came in handy in the 1850's when N.M. Rothschild & Sons started to refine gold and silver for the Bank of England and the Royal Mint. Growing Philanthropic Activities: Nathan contributed to many areas of philanthropy in the Jewish community. His family later expanded these charitable efforts to other populations in Paris and London. His earliest efforts went toward synagogues in London. He continued to champion this work, which eventually led to the formation of the United Synagogue, a larger organization that helped streamline the causes of the smaller individual synagogues. Later, various family members supported the creation of Israel and helped with the construction of government buildings. Rothschild had seven children with his wife, Hannah Barent Cohen. Those children followed and built on their family's philanthropic tradition. The Rothschild Archive reports that Nathan's youngest child, Louise, and her seven daughters took responsibility for many of the 30 Rothschild charitable foundations in Frankfurt. These foundations included public libraries, orphanages, hospitals, homes for the elderly, and special funds allocated for the purpose of education. The Jews’ Free School in London, in particular, received extensive financial support. Educational efforts in Austria, France, and Israel were also made possible through Rothschild generosity. In addition to monies put toward education, the family gave an estimated 60,000 pieces of artwork to numerous organizations. The Rothschild family expanded the creation of social housing in the cities of London and Paris, and the Rothschild Foundation was created to further these efforts. The House Of Rothschild In The 20th Century: Internal and external change including world wars, politics, and family rivalries diminished the family fortune over the next 100 years. The Naples branch of the bank had closed in 1863, and a lack of male heirs led to the closing of the Frankfurt branch in 1901. The Vienna branch was shuttered in 1938 after the Nazis invaded Austria and Jews were endangered in the lead-up to World War II. The Vichy government in France expropriated Rothschild Bordeaux properties during the war, and the Nazis confiscated millions of dollars worth of art and other precious objects from the Austrian branch of the family (a portion of these were returned by the Austrian government in 1998). Over the years, palatial Rothschild estates were gradually donated to the British and French governments and to other organizations and universities. By the 1970's, three Rothschild banks remained; the London and Paris branches and a Swiss bank founded by Baron Edmond Adolphe de Rothschild (1926 - 1997). In 1982, President Francois Mitterrand’s socialist government dealt the Paris bank a fatal blow, nationalizing it and renaming it Compagnie Europeenne de Banque. In 2008, all of the holdings were reorganized under a single company, a shareholder of Paris Orleans based in France, unifying the family businesses roughly two centuries after the five sons of Mayer Rothschild spread out across Europe. Moving Into The 21st Century: The family wealth has been divided among many descendants and heirs throughout the years. Today, Rothschild holdings span a number of industries, including financial services, real estate, mining, energy, and charitable work. The family also owns more than a dozen wineries in North America, Europe, South America, South Africa, and Australia. Traditionally, the Rothschild fortune is invested in closely held corporations. Today, Rothschild corporations have continued to see success. Most family members are employed by these corporations directly or are invested in operations that generate family wealth. The remarkable success of the family has largely been due to a strong interest in cooperation, being entrepreneurs, and the practice of smart business principles. The estate of Nathan Rothschild was intimately tied to the other fortunes of the family and became part of the collective wealth each Rothschild passed to the next generation. Rothschild descendants continue to finance global business operations and contribute to scholarly, humanitarian, cultural, and business endeavors. The family motto is Concordia, Integritas, Industria, which means “Harmony, Integrity, Industry.” For more information on the family tree, here is a link to a video on YouTube by Matt Baker (Useful Charts) Located in East Asia; Korea consists of the Korean Peninsula, Jeju Island, and several minor islands near the peninsula. It is bordered by China to the northwest and Russia to the northeast. It is separated from Japan to the east by the Korea Strait and the Sea of Japan (East Sea). During the first half of the 1st millennium, Korea was divided between the three competing states of Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla, together known as the "Three Kingdoms of Korea". In the second half of the 1st millennium, Silla defeated and conquered Baekje and Goguryeo, leading to the "Unified Silla" period. Meanwhile, Balhae formed in the north, superseding former Goguryeo. Unified Silla eventually collapsed into three separate states due to civil war, ushering in the Later Three Kingdoms. Toward the end of the 1st millennium, Goguryeo was resurrected as Goryeo, which defeated the two other states and unified the Korean Peninsula as a single sovereign state. Around the same time, Balhae collapsed and its last crown prince fled south to Goryeo. Goryeo (also spelled as Koryŏ), whose name developed into the modern exonym "Korea", was a highly cultured state that created the world's first metal movable type in 1234. However, multiple incursions by the Mongol Empire during the 13th century greatly weakened the nation, which eventually agreed to become a vassal state after decades of fighting. Following military resistance under King Gongmin that ended Mongol political influence in Goryeo, severe political strife followed, and Goryeo eventually fell to a coup led by General Yi Seong-gye, who established Joseon in July 17, 1392. The first 200 years of the Joseon era were marked by relative peace. During this period, the Korean alphabet was created by Sejong the Great in the 15th century and there was increasing influence of Confucianism. During the later part of the dynasty, Korea's isolationist policy earned it the Western nickname of the "Hermit Kingdom". By the late 19th century, the country became the object of imperial design by the Empire of Japan. After the First Sino-Japanese War, despite the Korean Empire's effort to modernize, the country was annexed by Japan in 1910 and ruled by it until the end of World War II in August 1945. In 1945, the Soviet Union and the United States agreed on the surrender of Japanese forces in Korea in the aftermath of World War II, leaving Korea partitioned along the 38th parallel. The North was under Soviet occupation and the South under U.S. occupation. These circumstances soon became the basis for the division of Korea by the two superpowers, exacerbated by their inability to agree on the terms of Korean independence. The Communist-inspired government in the North received backing from the Soviet Union in opposition to the pro-Western government in the South, leading to Korea's division into two political entities: North Korea (officially the Democratic People's Republic of Korea), and South Korea (officially the Republic of Korea). Tensions between the two resulted in the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950. With involvement by foreign troops, the war ended in a stalemate in 1953, but without a formalized peace treaty. This status contributes to the high tensions that continue to divide the peninsula. Both governments of the two Koreas claim to be the sole legitimate government of the region. Ever wonder what your last name means? The origins, meanings and age of your name? Whether it's ancient or modern, last names are intimate things that anchor us to our heritage. Here are the meanings and origins of some of the worlds most popular and not so popular last names. Your's maybe in here as well. WILSON: Wilson is an English and Scottish surname, common in the English-speaking world. The name is derived from a form of Will, a popular medieval name. The medieval Will is derived from any of several names containing the first Germanic element wil, meaning "desire". Possibly the most common of these names was William, derived from elements wil and helm, meaning "desire" and "helmet", "protection". RUSSELL: Is an Anglo-Norman word meaning "red haired" or even "red-skinned." STEWART: The Scottish name would have denoted a guardian who handled administrative tasks for a big royal household. It comes from the ancient word "stigweard." CLARK: Clark means "professional scribe." ALLEN: This name means "little rock" or "harmony." MYERS: In English, Myers means "son of the mayor." SINGH: Singh means "lion." Sikh in origin, it's given to a son on achieving manhood. WRIGHT: The name comes from an Old English word for "craftsman," and usually denoted someone who made things with wood, like windmills or wheels. CARTER: Carter is also English. It originally referred to a job in which someone would transport goods via cart, hence Cart-er. MULLER: In German, Muller meant someone who operated a mill. The English version of that one is, also of course, Miller. COOPER: In England, a cooper was someone who made barrels. MOORE: Moore has multiple meanings. It may have meant someone who lived by a moor or someone who worked on boats, or someone who was dark-skinned, like Othello. PERRY: In Old English, if you were named Perry, it meant that you spent a lot of time near pear trees. That sort of feels like a lazy nickname situation. In French, it was someone who worked in a quarry. TURNER: Turner also has a couple different origins. It might mean "turn hare," or someone who can run faster than a hare. It could also mean "one who works with a lathe". HOFFMAN: In German, Hoffman meant someone who was a steward on an estate. Or someone associated with a farm. LEWIS: Lewis comes from many cultures and has a few different meanings. An English Lewis was the son of a Lowis. Lewis also developed various first names in France and Germany and Normandy and so on. Those with the last name Llewellyn, in Welsh, usually becomes Lewis in English. They all came from the Frankish name Hludwig which meant "famous battle." YOUNG: Young referred to the youngest child. You might also might have earned the surname if you were young at heart. WEBER: Weber is German for "weaver." It probably stemmed form the Old English word webbe, which meant "to weave." KING: In English, King obviously means leader, but many people adopted it who weren't rulers, and it was used as a nickname quite often. You'll notice, for instance, that the Queen of England is not named Elizabeth Queen. But the name became popular among American immigrants from Ireland, and in the 16th century it was also common to give orphans in France the last name Roi, meaning "king." End of Part 02. Ever wonder what your last name means? The origins, meanings and age of your name? Whether it's ancient or modern, last names are intimate things that anchor us to our heritage. Here are the meanings and origins of some of the worlds most popular and not so popular last names. Your's maybe in here as well. Part 1. SMITH: Smith is an old English name given to those who worked with metal. It's probably related to a word that meant "to strike" or "to smite," which means it may have referred to a soldier or to the person hitting metal to form it into armor. SCHMIDT: Schmidt is basically the German version of Smith, which also derives from the word Smitan, which pre-dates written history. THOMAS: It's from an ancient Aramaic word meaning Twin. HILL: Hill is an English name referring to, you guessed it, someone living on a hill. Other people got the name not from location, but from the name Hildebrand or Hilliard. LYNCH: In parts of England, Lynch meant someone who lived by a hill. In Ireland, though, it may have meant seaman. MURPHY: Slightly different, Murphy comes from the Irish term for a sea warrior, which is basically a Lynch during war time. COOK: If your last name is Cook, you probably have some ancestors who did that for a living. BAKER: Dating back before the 8th century, Baker could have referred to someone baking bread, running a communal kitchen, or owning a kiln for firing pottery. BECKER: Becker is the German word for baker, and the name might have sprung up for the same reasons Baker and Baxter did in England, but it's also possible that the last name denoted someone living by a stream, or bach. HALL: They were the people who worked in a house or a hall. Or even if you just lived near one. ADAMS: Adams means "son of Adam" in England and Scotland. They borrowed the Adam part from Hebrew. ROGERS: Rogers means "son of Roger." The name comes from the legend of the Danish king Hrothgar, who can be found in Beowulf. Hrothgar, by the way, means "famous spear." THOMPSON: Thompson is Celtic, means either "son of Tom" or refers to a place called Thompson in Norfolk, sources tend to differ between the two. ROBINSON: You would be correct in assuming that Robinson means "son of Robin." Or Robert. ROBERTS: Roberts means "son of Robert," and Robert means "fame" and "bright." JACKSON: The name Jack is also derived from Yohanan. Jewish/Hebrew derived. PHILIPS: The Greek name Philippos, meaning "lover of horses", gave us the name Philip. MORTON: English and Scottish origin, a habitational name from any of the many places called Moreton, named in Old English as ‘settlement (tun) by or on a marsh or moor (mor)’. Swedish: variant of Martin. French: contracted form of Moreton. ALLISON: Allison is a surname of English and Scottish origin. When used as a given name it is traditionally masculine, as opposed to the feminine name Alison. Alison, variant form Alizon, is a surname of French origin. With the many variants of spelling through history, as well as the likelihood of phonetic spelling changes and variations through time; names such as Alison Allason, Ellison, Allyson, Alasoune, Allinson and in some cases McAllister have been found to be interchangeable and variants of the different families using the same family name of 'Allison'. The surname was first recorded in England in 1248, when a "William Alisun" is recorded in the Documents of the Abbey of Bee in Buckinghamshire. In Scotland, the earliest record dates from 1296, when "Patrick Alissone, Count of Berwick" paid homage to the ruling council of Scotland in the absence of a proclaimed king. CUE: The many generations and branches of the Cue family can all place the origins of their surname with the ancient Anglo-Saxon culture. Their name reveals that an early member worked as a person who worked as the cook. The surname was originally derived from the Old French terms queu, keu, kieu, cu, which denoted the cook or someone who operated an eating house. dU PLESSIS: French origin, meaning interwoven wooden fence. ROTHMAN: German (Rothmann) and Jewish (Ashkenazic); name for a person with red hair, from an elaborated form of Roth. German; topographic name for someone who lived on land that had been cleared. WALKER: Walker is an English and German surname derived from either a fuller, from the Middle High German walker, meaning "a fuller of cloth", or an officer whose duty consisted of walking or inspecting a certain part of a forest. The surname "Walker" was first found in Germany where records of the name date back to the thirteenth century. PISTORIOUS: Pistorius or Pistor (from Latin pistor meaning miller or baker) are Latinized surnames, corresponding to the Dutch Bakker or the German Becker. HARTLEY: This interesting surname, of Anglo-Saxon origin, is a locational name seen as early as the 7th Century, variations of heort, hart, leah meaning "wood", "clearing" or "hill." HENDRICKS: Recorded in Europe in some four hundred surnames spelling forms since the medieval times, this name is a derivative of the pre 7th century German personal name "Heim-ric", meaning "home rule". dU TOIT: du Toit is an Afrikaans surname, originally from Francois du Toit, a Huguenot who moved to South Africa in 1686. It translates as "of the roof". BOYCE: Scottish, Northern Irish, and English. Topographic name for someone who lived by a wood, from Old French bois 'wood'. English; From the Middle English nickname boy 'lad', 'servant'. DELPORT: “Of the Gate” in French. Derived from earlier settlers; the Huguenots of South Africa. BOSCH: Dutch and North German; another topographic name from Middle Dutch bussch, meaning 'wood' rather than 'bush', also found in place names, such as 's Hertogenbosch (Bois-le-Duc). German (Bösch). MCALEER: The surname McAleer is found in County Tyrone, Ulster in Ireland, moving into western regions of Scotland. It is an Anglicisation of the Gaelic Mac Giolla Uidhir or Mac Giolla Uír. It is thought to mean "son of the servant of Saint Odhar". Legend says that Saint Odhar was Saint Patrick's charioteer. The surname is most likely of Norse origin and is encountered frequently in Norway as Lier. It comes from la, a sloping grassy hillside at the foot of a mountain, a dale, a glen, the plural of which is lêr, pronounced leer. The name was transplanted to Ireland during the time of the Danish and Norwegian invasions, after which Mac was added to the name. SWART: Swart is an Afrikaans and Dutch surname meaning "black" (spelled zwart in modern Dutch). Variations on it are de Swart, Swarte, de Swarte, Swarts, Zwart, de Zwart, and Zwarts. FOX: The name Fox was taken from the animal's name. It's one of those last names that started out as a nickname. Usually, people who were called Fox were clever or else had red hair or both (probably just one or the other). End of part 01. Part 02: http://spectemuragendo.weebly.com/general/meanings-origins-of-last-names-part-2 The names of each US state on the map has an interesting origin. Many, in fact, remain mysteries to this day. Here is a list of each state and how its name came to be. Alabama - Alabama was named for the Alabama Indian tribe that lived in the western part of the state and eastern Mississippi until the early 1800's. The meaning of the word "Alabama" is unclear, but it may come from a Choctaw word meaning "thicket-clearers" or "vegetation-gatherers." Alaska - The native Aleut word for Alaska, alaxsxaq, literally means the "object toward which the action of the sea is directed." Anthropologists note that this is essentially a "sea-centric" way to say "mainland." Arizona - State historian Marshall Trimble says "Arizona" comes from the Basque words "aritz ona," meaning "good oaks," but there are other theories. Some think it's a corruption of Aleh-Shonak, a Native American village near Nogales, or it comes from the Spanish Arizonac, possibly a local name from the O'odham Native Americans that means "having a little spring." Arkansas - "Arkansas" comes from Arkansa, which is what the French called the Quapaw tribe in the region. The "S" was added to make it plural, but it is officially silent. The original Quapaw word means "south wind." California - California is the only state in the union named for a fictional place: the island paradise of California in Las Sergas de Esplanidian, a popular novel written in 1500 by Garcia Ordonez de Montalvo. Colorado - "Colorado" is simply the Spanish word for "ruddy" or "reddish-colored," which is how Spanish explorers first described the Colorado River (Rio Colorado, or "Red River") upon initially seeing it. Connecticut - This one sounds a lot like the word it comes from, the Mohican "quinnehtukqut," meaning "beside" or "at" the "long tidal river." Delaware - The Delaware River/Bay/tribes were all named after Thomas West, AKA Lord De La Warr, the first English colonial governor of Virginia. This moniker - "De La Warr" - is likely derived from "de la werre," the Old French expression for "of the war." Florida - The former Spanish colony was dubbed "Florida" from the the Spanish phrase Pascua florida, or "flowering Easter," which is what the Spanish call Palm Sunday, the day the peninsula was discovered. "Feast of Flowers" is another translation. Georgia - "Georgia" is basically the feminine version of "George," and Georgia was named as a colony in honor of King George II of England, using the feminine Latin version of the name. "George" comes from the Greek Georgos, meaning "husbandman" or "farmer." Hawaii - Named either for Hawaiʻiloa (the ancient Hawaiian legendary hero said to have first discovered the islands) or for Hawaiki (the mythical homeland of the Polynesians), Hawaii's name is definitely one with legendary origins. Idaho - "Idaho" is widely thought to be a fake Native American word coined as a ruse by prospector and lobbyist George M. Willing, who claimed it meant "Gem of the Mountains." The name was almost used for Colorado before Congress discovered it was a fabrication. Some scholars, however, think it could come from the Kiowa-Apache word idaahe, meaning "enemy." Illinois - Named after a confederation of Native Americans known as the Illiniwek, which the French called the Illinois. The word means "ordinary speaker," "the men," or "tribe of superior men," depending on the translation. Indiana - "Indiana" is simply "Indian" plus "-ana," the Latin-derived place-name suffix. Together, it forms the phrase "Land of Indians." Iowa - Named after the Baxoje tribe, which the French called the Iowa or Ioway, possibly because of the Dakota word ayuxbe, meaning "sleepy ones." Kansas - Named for the Kansas river, which is named for the Kansa tribe. Like Arkansas, the root word is believed to refer to the wind or the "south wind." Kentucky - The etymology on this is unclear, but it may be an English bastardization of a Native American word, perhaps the Seneca geda'geh, meaning "at the field." Early Native use of the term as a place name may also come from a village known to the Shawnee as Eskippakithiki. Another popular theory is that "Kentucky" comes from the Iroquois word "ken-tah-ten," meaning "land of tomorrow" or "dark and bloody ground." Louisiana - Before becoming a state, the colony was named by French explorers in 1682 in honor of Louis XIV. Maine - The origin of "Maine" is disputed, but there are a few competing popular theories. One is that French explorers dubbed this region Maine after a region in France called Mayne. Another is that colonist Sir Ferdinando Gorges named it after the village his family came from, known as Maine or Meine. It also may simply mean "main land," distinguishing it from the numerous nearby islands. Maryland - Named after Henrietta Maria, wife of King Charles I of England. Maria-land. Massachusetts - This is a plural word, believe it or not, referring to Native Americans who lived near the bay. The word is from the Algonquian Massachusett, meaning "at the large hill," referring to Great Blue Hill in the Blue Hills area of Massachusetts. Michigan - Lake Michigan actually had the name before the state, and it was perhaps derived from the French spelling of the Algonquian word meshi-gami, meaning "big lake." Minnesota - "Minnesota" comes from the Dakota mnisota, which literally means "cloudy water, milky water." The word was originally applied to the Minnesota River. "Sky-tinted water" is another translation. Mississippi - A big word meaning "big river," the name comes from the Algonquian by way of the French. "Father of Waters" is an alternate translation. Missouri - A name for a tribe of Siouan-speaking Indians, originally pronounced as weemeehsoorita. The word means "dugout canoe," a reference to the Missouri tribe's skill at creating the vessels. "People of the big canoes" is another translation. Montana - US Representative James H. Ashley of Ohio proposed the name "Montana" in 1864 in reference to the presence of the Rocky Mountains in the territory. Ashley chose the name - a Latinized Spanish word meaning "mountain" or "mountainous" - from a dictionary. Nebraska - US Representative James H. Ashley of Ohio proposed the name "Montana" in 1864 in reference to the presence of the Rocky Mountains in the territory. Ashley chose the name - a Latinized Spanish word meaning "mountain" or "mountainous" - from a dictionary. Nevada - Named for the Spanish nevado, meaning snowy or snowcapped by way of the Sierra Nevada mountain range, the name of which simply means "snowy mountains." New Hampshire - Named, as you would imagine, after the old Hampshire, which is a county in England. New Jersey - Colonist Sir George de Carteret named the state after his birthplace of Jersey, an island in the English Channel. New Mexico - Simply a word-for-word translation of Nuevo Mexico, the name of the territory when it was discovered by Spanish explorers. Contrary to popular belief, the state wasn't explicitly named after Mexico, but instead retained the old Spanish name, just translated literally into English. New York - Named in honor of the Duke of York and Albany, later known as King James II. North Carolina - Like Georgia, Carolina is a feminized version of a male name - Charles, in this case, since the Latin form is Carolus, thus Carolinus, or "of Charles." French colonists named the region after Charles IX of France, but the English named the colony after King Charles I & II. See also South Carolina. North Dakota - Named for the Native American tribe, the Dakota, the name of which means "friendly" or "allies." See also South Dakota. Ohio - Named after the Ohio River, which was named after an Iroquoian word meaning "good" or "great" river. Oklahoma - The territory was named by a Choctaw chief, combining two words into a neologism meaning, simply, "red people" or "red nation." Oregon - Unknown, but it first appeared as "Ouragon" in a 1765 proposal by an English army officer to King George III as the name of a river, later known as the Columbia. There are several theories as to where the name comes from, but it's officially a mystery. Pennsylvania - Literally "Penn's Woods" in honor of Admiral William Penn, per a suggestion by King Charles II. Rhode Island - Disputed, but it is believed to either be named for its resemblance to the Greek island of Rhodes or for a Dutch explorer's name, or from the Dutch expression Roodt Eylandt, meaning "Red Island," which describes the state's appearance in the autumn. South Carolina - Like Georgia, Carolina is a feminized version of a male name - Charles, in this case, since the Latin form is Carolus, thus Carolinus, or "of Charles." French colonists named the region after Charles IX of France, but the English named the colony after King Charles I & II. See also North Carolina South Dakota - Named for the Native American tribe, the Dakota, the name of which means "friendly" or "allies." See also North Dakota. Tennessee - The meaning is unknown, but it came from the name of a Cherokee village in the area, Tanasi. Texas - From the Caddo Indian tribe's taysha, meaning "friends" or "allies," adapted by the Spanish into texa and the plural texas. Utah - Named after the Yuta, the Spanish name for the Uto-Aztecan people native to the area. Yuta may come from an Apache word meaning "high." Vermont - Based, perhaps erroneously, on the French for "Green Mountain." Technically, as Douglas Harper notes, the French would be Montvert, as in Le Pont-de-Montvert. Virginia - Based, perhaps erroneously, on the French for "Green Mountain." Technically, as Douglas Harper notes, the French would be Montvert, as in Le Pont-de-Montvert. Washington - The only state in the union named after a president. George Washington's family name comes from a town in northeast England. Washington means "estate of a man named Wassa" in Old English. West Virginia - The original colony was named after Elizabeth I, the Virgin Queen, in 1587. See also Virginia, which West Virginia split from during the Civil War. Wisconsin - The original colony was named after Elizabeth I, the Virgin Queen, in 1587. See also Virginia, which West Virginia split from during the Civil War. Wyoming - From the Algonquian word chwewamink, meaning "at the big river flat." Originally used to describe a region in Pennsylvania, it was later applied to the western territory and future state. A fingerprint in its narrow sense is an impression left by the friction ridges of a human finger. The recovery of fingerprints from a crime scene is an important method of forensic science. Fingerprints are easily deposited on suitable surfaces (such as glass or metal or polished stone) by the natural secretions of sweat from the eccrine glands that are present in epidermal ridges. These are sometimes referred to as "Chanced Impressions". In a wider use of the term, fingerprints are the traces of an impression from the friction ridges of any part of a human or other primate hand. A print from the sole of the foot can also leave an impression of friction ridges. Deliberate impressions of fingerprints may be formed by ink or other substances transferred from the peaks of friction ridges on the skin to a relatively smooth surface such as a fingerprint card. Fingerprint records normally contain impressions from the pad on the last joint of fingers and thumbs, although fingerprint cards also typically record portions of lower joint areas of the fingers. Human fingerprints are detailed, nearly unique, difficult to alter, and durable over the life of an individual, making them suitable as long-term markers of human identity. They may be employed by police or other authorities to identify individuals who wish to conceal their identity, or to identify people who are incapacitated or deceased and thus unable to identify themselves, as in the aftermath of a natural disaster. Fingerprint analysis, in use since the early 20th century, has led to many crimes being solved. This means that many criminals consider gloves essential. The origins as to why a system to record convicted criminals using fingerprints was essential after the mysteriously odd case of Will West & William West. Convicted of a minor crime, Will West, who in 1903, upon arrival at the Leavenworth Penitentiary in northeast Kansas, was informed that he was already in prison serving a life sentence for first-degree murder. He was checked by the Bertillon identification system in the prison and his face matched completely with that of another William West who was in their criminal database and behind bars in that same prison. Same name and strangely enough almost identical facial features, but to much surprise to prison officials, two completely different individuals. Two years prior, in 1901, a convicted criminal named William West was received at the United States Penitentiary in Leavenworth, and in what counted as a formal procedure, M.W. McClaughry, the records clerk, took his Bertillon measurements, compiled an archive file for the inmate, and informed him about the rules in the prison as well as the number of his cell. The Bertillon system for criminal identification was a technique developed by the French handwriting expert, dedicated criminologist, and biometrics researcher Alphonse Bertillon, and from 1887 was implemented throughout the United States penitentiaries so that they could keep detailed report cards for the inmates. It was nothing more than a simple criminal mug shot, only with a detailed description of the person’s face attached to it. It worked just fine like this, as criminals were identified by their picture and their full name only, or for a short while at least. It took no more than two decades for a person to emerge that bore a striking resemblance to another, despite the unlikeliness of such an occurrence, and, uncannily, in the same prison, and having the same name to boot. That clerk previously mentioned, received another convicted felon at his office, sent to Leavenworth to serve his time. He had his picture taken and was measured using the Bertillon system, and as it happened, upon the standardized checkup, a file with the name William West popped up from the prison’s archives. The clerk asked the man, “What now? What have you done now?” Confused, Will, answered that it was his first time in here, and moreover, it was his first ever conviction. Initially, the clerk was not shocked nor startled, understanding that almost every criminal reluctantly rejects his crimes, and muttered simply “mm hmm” to the man, whilst looking through his file the whole while, when suddenly to his surprise, it turned out the file in front of him belonged to a man still serving his sentence in the prison. Staring at the face in the file, this man had the exact same bone structure, equal nose length, mouth shape, and positioning of the eyes as the person sitting in the chair, across from his desk in front of him. He ran a double check, and, sure enough, everything was completely identical, as if a clone of the inmate sat before him. Subsequently, to avoid similar confusion in the future, and after hearing that Bertillon had made another breakthrough in the advancement of dactyloscopy by identifying and convicting a murderer based on his fingerprints, the prison adopted this fingerprint identification system instead of the older one, viewing it as a more reliable method for identification. As it turned out, it was very reliable, as the two inmates after being examined in 1905 displayed entirely different patterns. The story has been retold countless times and is now considered a classic in the field. However, a few versions of it were blown out to such an extent that some even suggested that after checking both of the men’s fingerprints, it was discovered that the second Will, received for a minor crime, was, in fact, the real murderer and not the one already imprisoned. Then again, the authors of this story misspelled the name of the clerk and confused him with his father, the warden at the Leavenworth penitentiary, throughout the event. So as compelling as this story may be, the credibility of the claim is highly questionable. Today, thanks to these two unrelated yet identical inmates and their prison conundrum, the fingerprint analysis is employed by every law enforcement agency, in every country, the world over, so when required, they can pursue suspects and as a result convict them correctly. Masabumi Hosono (15 October 1870 - 14 March 1939) was a Japanese civil servant. He was the only Japanese passenger on the RMS Titanic's disastrous maiden voyage. He survived the ship's sinking on 15 April 1912 but found himself condemned and ostracized by the Japanese public, press, and government for his decision to save himself rather than go down with the ship. During the night of 14/15 April he was awakened by a steward. However, he was blocked from going to Titanic's boat deck, from which lifeboats were already being launched, as a crewman assumed that he was a third class passenger. He eventually made his way past the obstruction and made his way to the boat deck, where he saw with alarm that emergency flares were being fired: "All the while flares signalling emergency were being shot into the air ceaselessly, and hideous blue flashes and noises were simply terrifying. Somehow I could in no way dispel the feeling of utter dread and desolation." As the number of lifeboats remaining diminished rapidly: "I tried to prepare myself for the last moment with no agitation, making up my mind not to leave anything disgraceful as a Japanese. But still I found myself looking for and waiting for any possible chance for survival." As he watched lifeboat 10 being loaded, an officer shouted, "Room for two more", and a man jumped aboard. Hosono saw this and, as he later put it, "the example of the first man making a jump led me to take this last chance." He made it aboard safely and later commented: "Fortunately the men in charge were taken up with something else and did not pay much attention. Besides, it was dark, and so they would not have seen who was a man and who a woman." From his vantage point in the lifeboat, only 200 feet (61 m) away from the sinking ship, he heard the cries of those still aboard and what he described as "extraordinary sounds", seemingly four distinct explosions, when the ship broke up. He described what he heard and saw as Titanic went under: After the ship sank there came back again frightful shrills and cries of those drowning in the water. Our lifeboat too was filled with sobbing, weeping children and women worried about the safety of their husbands and fathers. And I, too, was as much depressed and miserable as they were, not knowing what would become of myself in the long run. At about 8 am on 15 April, the lifeboat's passengers were rescued by the RMS Carpathia. Once aboard, Hosono slept in the smoking room but avoided it when he could as he was the target of jokes by the seamen, whom he called "a good-for-nothing band of seamen" for whom "anything I say falls on deaf ears." He pushed back, showing them "a bulldog tenacity" and eventually gained what he called "a bit of respect." He still had in his coat pockets a sheaf of stationery with Titanic's letterhead on which he had started a letter to his wife written in English. He now used the paper to write an account of his experiences in Japanese during Carpathia's voyage to New York. It is the only such document known to exist on Titanic stationery. Hosono's story attracted little attention at first. He went to the offices of Mitsui in New York to ask friends for help to get him home. From there he traveled to San Francisco to find a ship back to Japan. A local newspaper heard of his story and dubbed him the "Lucky Japanese Boy". Back in Tokyo, he was interviewed by a number of magazines and newspapers including the daily Yomiuri Shimbun, which ran a photograph of him with his family. According to a 1997 article released around the time of the blockbuster film Titanic, Hosono soon found himself the target of public condemnation. He was publicly condemned in the United States. He was described as a "stowaway" aboard lifeboat 10 by Archibald Gracie, who wrote a best-selling account of the disaster, while the seaman in charge of the boat, Able Seaman Edward Buley, told a US Senate inquiry that Hosono and the other man must have disguised themselves as women in order to sneak aboard. This false accusation was not reported in Japan. He lost his job and was condemned as a coward by the Japanese press. The 1997 article claimed that school textbooks described him as an example of how to be dishonorable and he was denounced as immoral by a professor of ethics. A 2007 re-investigation by Ando Kenji, published in Shincho 45, was unable to find any such textbooks. In any case he was soon reemployed by the ministry, as he was too valuable to lose, and continued to work for it until his death. Western academics who read the 1997 article put forth various explanations why Hosono encountered such a hostile reaction. It has been said that he was seen to have "betray[ed] the Samurai spirit of self-sacrifice". Another suggestion, from Jon P. Alston and Isao Takei, is that he was seen as having failed to show the expected conformity and was believed to have selfishly pushed aside other passengers to board the lifeboat. As a result he was subjected to mura hachibu or ostracism. Margaret D. Mehl attributes his ostracism to the perception that he had embarrassed Japan; notably, an ethics textbook criticized him for having disgraced the Japanese through his conduct. The "women and children first" protocol was not part of the Samurai code, but had instead come to Japan via the 1859 book Self Help by Samuel Smiles, which was a huge success in translation and proved enormously influential in introducing Western values to Japan. Mehl comments: "Hosono's failure to act as the Anglo-Saxon nations evidently expected their men to act caused embarrassment in Japan, but more because of the Japanese’s acceptance of Western values than because of their own traditions." Kenji Ando's article concluded that there was nothing unusual about Hosono's treatment, which was sensationalized to fit a 1997 article accompanying the release of a Hollywood film, and it was actually no different than that of Western male survivors such as J. Bruce Ismay. Hosono's story remained a source of shame for his family for decades. He never spoke of it himself. Ketchup originated in China as a boiled-down brine of pickled fish and spices called ‘ke-chiap’. Ketchup is one of the most popular condiments that can be found in almost every household on the planet. Ketchup, as we know it today, is basically a tomato sauce, but in the past, the sauce was made out of oysters, mushrooms, walnuts, mussels, eggs and many other food products. The fast food industry today is unimaginable without ketchup, with the sauce being the best companion to French fries, burgers and hot dogs. Various versions of ketchup can be found on the market, containing different ingredients. You might think that this famous red sauce is a product of our modern times, but its production, in fact, began more than 500 years ago in China. The Chinese invented ketchup in the 17th century. The original sauce was made out of fermented anchovies and spices, with an alluring caramel color. This fish sauce was called ke-chiap in the Amoy dialect. The Chinese sailors brought the sauce with them everywhere they went, so the ke-chiap soon became known in Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and other countries in Asia. The western world had its first contact with the fish sauce when the Dutch and British merchants arrived in Asia, where they purchased silk, spices, tea, and of course, ketchup sauce. The British brought the sauce home, but also spread it to their colonies around the globe. They soon began the production of their own ketchup, with mushrooms and walnuts as the main ingredients. The first usage of tomatoes in the sauce happened in the 19th century, and the anchovies were dropped out of the recipe somewhere in the 1850’s. Ketchup became very popular in the United States, so the Americans started to think about how to commercialize the sauce. In the 1890’s, manufacturers like Heinz began with ketchup production as it was then but modified the recipe so as to preserve the sauce for longer. Adding sugar to the sauce brought the sweet taste we are so familiar with today. The United States are still the biggest consumer of ketchup, with Heinz being the worldwide leader in sales. The Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós: One of the most remarkable finds of the early European Middle Ages. On 3rd July 1799, a significant hoard of twenty-three early medieval gold vessels was found in an iron chest by Neru Vuin, a Serb farmer, near the small Hungarian town of Nagy Szent-Miklós in northern Banat, in total weighing 9.945 kg. The treasure is known as the Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós and most probably was hidden between 795 and 803, and unearthed roughly thousand years later. In the last 200 years, hundreds of scientists studied the treasure of Nagyszentmiklós but the mystery remains: when were the dishes made, who made them, who owned them, why were they made in an odd number, who and why were they hid? The language of the inscriptions on the vessels of the Treasure is not clearly known, and the inscriptions on some pieces have increased the complexity of the arguments rather than reduced them.There is an inscription in Greek and 14 short inscriptions in a Runiform script (an old Turkic alphabet). The historians have different views towards the dating and the origins of the pieces, and the background in which they were made. The pieces of the Treasure were manufactured at different times and by different masters. According to one theory, the treasure was made in the 8th century by the Avars, a nomadic people of uncertain origins and ethnolinguistic affiliation. Another theory claimed that Bulgarians made the utensil in the 9th century, and according to another study the Magyars of the Original Settlement made the treasure in the 10th century. The golden treasure was transferred to Vienna immediately after its discovery, and now it is on display at the Kunsthistorisches Museum. Robert Cornelius was an American photography pioneer, born 1809 in Philadelphia. Robert showed interests in chemistry since his young years and joined his father in the business of silver plate production and metal polishing. After becoming successful and well known for his works, Cornelius was approached by the American inventor Joseph Saxton. The inventor asked Robert to produce a silver plating for his daguerreotype, and this was the spark that started Robert’s interest in photography. The daguerreotype was the first photographic process available for the public, and the most commonly used for nearly 20 years after its invention. Named after its inventor Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre, the daguerreotype was introduced to the world in 1839. The process was quite complicated. The photographer, or daguerreotypist, in this case, polished a sheet of silver-plated copper until it looked like a mirror. After this, the plate would be treated with fumes, becoming light sensitive so it can be exposed in a camera for as long as needed. The lightning was the deciding factor in the time duration before making a photography. The well-lit surroundings meant that few seconds were needed to take the daguerreotype. Less lightning made the process quite longer. After getting introduced to the process, Robert Cornelius decided to develop further and perfect the daguerreotype. His works resulted in what’s today known as the first selfie. Since daguerreotype needed a lot of light, Robert had to work outdoors. The famous first selfie was taken in October 1839, outside the lamp and chandelier store which was owned by his family. For the photo, Robert used a box fitted with a lens from an opera glass. Since the daguerreotype needed 3-15 minutes to be taken, the young photographer had enough time to uncover the lens, run into the shot, stay there as long as necessary or more, and then replace the lens cap. In the self-portrait, Robert’s image appears off center, showing a man with tousled hair and his arms crossed, looking at the camera with uncertainty. This is the oldest known photograph of a human in America. Daguerre’s photograph of the Boulevard du Templ was taken one year earlier and depicts two human figures on the sidewalk, which had accidentally appeared on the image. After this success, in the period from 1841 to 1843, Robert started and operated tow of the first photographic studios in the United States. As the popularity of photography grew, and more photography studios were opened, Cornelius closed his studios. It is uncertain whether he lost interest in photography, or became money driven, realizing he could earn more by working in his family gas and lighting company. The iconic reggae anthem was released in 1973 by Bob Marley and the Wailers. In the song, Bob Marley sings about his conflict with his girlfriend over birth control pills. Bob refers to the doctor that prescribed the pills as the sheriff. The song became famous when Eric Clapton made his own version in 1974, which became a number one hit in the United States, boosting Marley’s popularity in the process. The sheriff’s name in the song is John Brown, a name later used by Bob Dylan and Bruce Springsteen in their own songs. There have been many theories on the true origins of the meaning behind this song but none more believable than that by Marley's former girlfriend; Jamaican filmmaker, photographer and actress; Esther Anderson who stated in a 2012 interview; "Sheriff John Brown always hated me, For what, I don't know: Every time I plant a seed, He said kill it before it grow" are actually about Marley being very opposed to her use of birth control pills; Marley supposedly substituted the word "doctor" with sheriff. Arthur Guinness was born on September 28, 1725, to a family of brewers on the estate of Arthur Price, the Protestant Church of Ireland archbishop of Cashel. His father Richard, who was land steward to the archbishop of Cashel, Dr. Arthur Price, brewed beer for workers on the estate taught Arthur the craft of brewing. As time passed young Arthur became a very good friend with Price and when the archbishop died in 1752 he left 100 pounds each to “his servant” Arthur and his father. This event marked the beginning of Guinness brewing company’s story. At that time 100 pounds was a large sum of money and it was the equivalent of four years wages. He managed to perfect his skills as the brewer for an inn owned by his stepmother in the next few years and three years after archbishop’s death he managed to rent a small brewery in Leixlip, a town in north-east County Kildare, Ireland. Business was going well for Arthur and when he was 34-years-old he moved from Leixlip to the capital city of Ireland in order to open a brewery there hoping to expand his business. He found an old dilapidated brewery, named St. James’s Gate Brewery, in the southwest of Dublin. The brewery covered four acres and consisted of a copper, a kieve, a mill, two malthouses, stabling for 12 horses and a loft to hold 200 tons of hay. The owner of St. James’s Gate Brewery required 100 pounds as a down payment and 45 pounds per month for rent. On the last day of December 1759, Arthur somehow managed to get the owner to agree to a lease for up to 9,000 years on these terms. Guinness is still brewed at St. James Gate, and the company still pays 45 pounds in rent each month. At that time whiskey, gin, and poteen were the alcoholic drinks most readily available in Ireland but Arthur Guinness was a visionary and brewed a beer relatively new to Ireland that contained roasted barley which gave it a characteristically dark color. Arthur Guinness believed that liquor, especially gin, was destroying the lower classes in Ireland in the 1750s and he also believed that everyone should have access to a high-quality quality beer and a healthier form of alcohol. This is why he brewed the high-quality black porter, his legendary Guinness Stout. Soon Arthur Guinness revolutionized the brewing industry and ousted all imports from the Irish market and Guinness’s porter was in demand not only in Dublin but increasingly in England as well. It was 1761 when Arthur Guinness married Olivia Whitmore in St. Mary’s Church, Dublin. The couple had 21 children and 10 of them lived to adulthood. He handed over control to his three sons and spent his last years at Beaumont, his country home in Drumcondra. Arthur Guinness died on 23 January 1803 at the age of 78. But his story does not end there. As years passed by Guinness grew to be one of the largest and most respected breweries in the world. By 1838, Guinness’ St. James’s Gate Brewery was the largest in Ireland and by 1914, St. James’s Gate was the world’s largest brewery On April 29, 1770, the British HM Bark Endeavor became the first European vessel to reach the east coast of Australia after it landed at Botany Bay near modern day Sydney. At the helm was James Cook, a mariner who would go on to circumnavigate the globe twice and explore everything from the Bering Strait and the islands of the South Pacific to the treacherous ice floes surrounding Antarctica. Cook’s three voyages of discovery helped fill in many of the blank spots on Europeans’ world maps, but his mistreatment of natives in Hawaii eventually led to an untimely death. Captain James Cook FRS (7 November 1728 – 14 February 1779) was a British explorer, navigator, cartographer, and captain in the Royal Navy. Cook made detailed maps of Newfoundland prior to making three voyages to the Pacific Ocean, during which he achieved the first recorded European contact with the eastern coastline of Australia and the Hawaiian Islands, and the first recorded circumnavigation of New Zealand. Cook joined the British merchant navy as a teenager and joined the Royal Navy in 1755. He saw action in the Seven Years' War, and subsequently surveyed and mapped much of the entrance to the Saint Lawrence River during the siege of Quebec. This helped bring Cook to the attention of the Admiralty and Royal Society. This notice came at a crucial moment in both Cook's career and the direction of British overseas exploration, and led to his commission in 1766 as commander of HM Bark Endeavour for the first of three Pacific voyages. In three voyages Cook sailed thousands of miles across largely uncharted areas of the globe. He mapped lands from New Zealand to Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean in greater detail and on a scale not previously achieved. As he progressed on his voyages of discovery he surveyed and named features, and recorded islands and coastlines on European maps for the first time. He displayed a combination of seamanship, superior surveying and cartographic skills, physical courage and an ability to lead men in adverse conditions. Cook was attacked and killed while attempting to kidnap the native chief of Hawaii during his third exploratory voyage in the Pacific in 1779. He left a legacy of scientific and geographical knowledge which was to influence his successors well into the 20th century, and numerous memorials worldwide have been dedicated to him. Two hundred forty-five years after he landed in Australia, learn 10 surprising facts about the explorer who vowed to sail “as far as I think it possible for man to go.” 1.) Cook Joining The Royal Navy Relatively Late In Life: Cook worked on a Yorkshire farm in his youth before winning an apprenticeship with a merchant sailing company at age 17. He cut his teeth as a mariner on shipping voyages in the choppy waters of North and Baltic Seas, and spent the next decade rising through the ranks and mastering the art of navigation. He was being groomed to become a captain, but in 1755, he shocked his superiors by quitting his merchant sailing career and enlisting in the British Royal Navy as a common Seaman. Cook was 26 - far older than most new recruits - yet it didn’t take long for the Navy to recognize his talent. He was promoted to Ship’s Master in only two years, and later became one of the first men in British Naval history to rise through the enlisted ranks and take command of his own vessel. 2.) He Was An Expert Mapmaker: Cook first rose to prominence as a cartographer during the Seven Years’ War, when his detailed charts of the Saint Lawrence River helped the British pull off a surprise attack against French-held Quebec. In the early 1760's, he was given a ship and tasked with charting the island of Newfoundland off the coast of Canada. The map he produced was so accurate that it was still in use in the 20th century. Cook’s skill at charting the seas would later become a crucial tool in his explorer’s arsenal. He won command of his first round-the-world voyage in part because he could be trusted to navigate in uncharted territory and bring home precise maps of the lands he discovered. 3.) First Voyage Included Secret Mission From British Gov: Cook’s career as an explorer began in August 1768, when he left England on HM Bark Endeavour with nearly 100 crewmen in tow. Their journey was ostensibly a scientific expedition - they were charged with sailing to Tahiti to observe the transit of Venus across the face of the sun - but it also had a hidden military agenda. Cook carried sealed orders instructing him to seek out the “Great Southern Continent,” an undiscovered landmass that was believed to lurk somewhere near the bottom of the globe. The explorer followed orders and sailed south to the 40th parallel, but found no evidence of the fabled continent. He then turned west and circled New Zealand, proving it was a pair of islands and not connected to a larger landmass. Cook would later resume his search for the Southern Continent during his second circumnavigation of the globe in the early 1770's, and came tantalizingly close to sighting Antarctica before pack ice forced him to turn back. 4.) His Ship HM Endeavour Nearly Sank On The Great Barrier Reef: After landing in Australia during his first voyage, Cook pointed his ship north and headed for the Dutch seaport of Batavia. Because he was in un-mapped territory, he had no idea he was sailing directly into the razor-sharp coral formations of the Great Barrier Reef. On June 11, 1770, his ship Endeavour slammed into a coral reef and began taking on water, endangering both his crew and his priceless charts of his Pacific discoveries. Cook’s men frantically pumped water out of the holds and threw cannons and other equipment overboard to lighten the ship’s weight. They even used an old sail to try and plug a hole in their hull. After more than 20 desperate hours, they finally stopped the leak and limped toward the Australian coast. It would take Cook nearly two months of repairs to make his ship seaworthy again. 5.) Cook Helped Pioneer New Methods For Warding Off Scurvy: In the 18th century, the specter of scurvy - a disease caused by a lack of vitamin C - loomed over every long distance sea voyage. Cook, however, managed to keep all three of his expeditions nearly scurvy-free. This was partially because of his obsession with procuring fresh food at each of his stops, but many have also credited his good fortune to an unlikely source: sauerkraut. While Cook didn’t know the cure or cause of scurvy, he did know that the nutrient-rich pickled cabbage seemed to keep the disease at bay, so he brought several tons of it on his voyages. His only problem was getting his crew to eat it. To trick them, Cook simply had sauerkraut “dressed every day” for the officers’ table. When the enlisted men saw their superiors eating it, they assumed it was a delicacy and requested some for themselves. 6.) Even Britain’s Enemies Respected Cook: While Cook’s journeys took place during a time when Britain was variously at war with the United States, Spain and France, his reputation as a pioneering explorer allowed him to travel the seas with relative impunity. In July 1772, a squadron of Spanish vessels briefly detained his ships, only to release them after they realized Cook in command. Likewise, when Cook’s third voyage set sail during the American Revolution, Benjamin Franklin wrote a memo to colonial ship captains instructing them to treat the British vessels as “common friends to mankind” if they encountered them at sea. 7.) He Searched For The Northwest Passage: In 1776, a 47-year-old Cook set sail on his third voyage of discovery—this time a search for the elusive Northwest Passage in the Arctic. After traveling halfway around the world, he led the ships HMS Resolution and Discovery on a perilous survey of the upper coasts of western Canada and Alaska. Cook came within 50 miles of the western entrance to the passage, but his attempts to locate it were ultimately thwarted by freezing weather, violent currents and heavy ice floes in the Bering Sea. When the extreme conditions drove his crew to the brink of mutiny, Cook reluctantly turned south for the summer. He would die before he had a chance to resume his search. 8.) Natives Mistook Him For A God When He Landed On The Hawaiian Islands: During Cook’s third voyage, he became the first European to set foot on Hawaii, which he called the “Sandwich Islands” after his patron the Earl of Sandwich. Hawaiians at Kealakekua Bay celebrated Cook’s January 1779 landing with joyous celebrations, and for good reason: by some strange coincidence, the explorer’s arrival coincided with an annual festival honoring the Hawaiian fertility god Lono. Since the natives had never seen white men or massive sailing ships like Cook’s, they assumed he was their deity and lavished him with feasts and gifts. The Europeans responded by greedily stripping Kealakekua of food and supplies, but when one of Cook’s sailors died from a stroke, the natives realized the strangely dressed Europeans weren’t immortals after all. From then on, Cook’s relationship with the Hawaiians became increasingly strained. 9.) He Suffered A Grisly Death: While docked for repairs in Hawaii in February 1779, Cook became enraged after a group of natives stole a cutter ship from one of his boats. He went ashore and tried to take King Kalani‘ōpu‘u hostage, but the Hawaiians feared their leader would be killed and swarmed to his aid. When Cook’s ship Discovery fired its cannons at another group of Hawaiians, the explorer panicked and discharged a rifle before fleeing to a waiting boat. He didn’t get far before he was pelted by stones and struck by a club. A Hawaiian warrior then brandished a knife - a gift from Cook - and plunged it into his back. Cook fell into the surf and was repeatedly stabbed and bashed with rocks. After he perished, the Hawaiians ritualistically prepared his corpse as they would that of a king. They preserved his hands in sea salt, then roasted the rest of his body in a pit before cleaning his bones. 10.) NASA Named Spacecraft After His Ships: Cook explored and mapped more territory than any navigator of his era, and his achievements later saw him honored by NASA. Cook’s HMS Discovery was one of several historical vessels that inspired the name of the third space shuttle, and NASA later named their final shuttle “Endeavour” after the ship he commanded on his first circumnavigation of the globe. When the shuttle Discovery made its final space flight in 2011, its crew carried a special medallion made by the Royal Society in honor of Cook. The Los Angeles Hollywood sign is very popular and familiar to most Americans. This sign was built in 1929 with wood and was previously named “HOLLYWOODLAND.” It was changed to “HOLLYWOOD” in 1949. The sign is the worldwide symbol of the entertainment industry, with the famous message that this place is full of magic and imagination. Now, the Hollywood sign is famous all around the world and can be viewed from everywhere as it represents the industry. The history of this sign is also interesting. The sign was made in 1923 to promote real estate in the Santa Monica Mountains. These letters were 45 feet high and were outlined by 4000 light bulbs. The sign HOLLYWOODLAND glowed in night and look amazing. The land was then given to the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce in 1949. Over the course of more than half a century, the sign, designed to stand for only 18 months, sustained extensive damage and deterioration. During the early 1940s, Albert Kothe (the sign's official caretaker) caused an accident that destroyed the letter H, as seen in many historical pictures. Kothe, driving while inebriated, was nearing the top of Mount Lee when he lost control of his vehicle and drove off the cliff behind the H. While Kothe was not injured, the 1928 Ford Model A was destroyed, as was the letter. In 1949 the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce began a contract with the City of Los Angeles Parks Department to repair and rebuild the sign. The contract stipulated that "LAND" be removed to spell "Hollywood" and reflect the district, not the "Hollywoodland" housing development. The Parks Department dictated that all subsequent illumination would be at the Chamber's expense, so the Chamber opted not to replace the light bulbs. The 1949 effort gave it new life, but the sign's unprotected wood and sheet metal structure continued to deteriorate. By the 1970s, the first O had splintered and broken, resembling a lowercase u, and the third O had fallen down completely, leaving the severely dilapidated sign reading "HuLLYWO D". Following the 1978 public campaign to restore the sign, the following nine donors gave $27,777 each (which totaled $250,000): ⭐ H: Terrence Donnelly (publisher of the Hollywood Independent Newspaper) ⭐ O: Giovanni Mazza (Italian movie producer) ⭐ L: Les Kelley (originator of the Kelley Blue Book) ⭐ L: Gene Autry (actor) ⭐ Y: Hugh Hefner (founder of Playboy magazine) ⭐ W: Andy Williams (singer) ⭐ O: Warner Bros. Records ⭐ O: Alice Cooper (singer), who donated in memory of close friend and comedian Groucho Marx, and who joked that he would also donate an "O" from his last name ⭐ D: Thomas Pooley (donated in the name of Matthew Williams) Though there have been many phrases similar to what we know now today as Murphy's Law, the most common connection between the phrase and a person has always remained the same and most widely accepted as you will read below. Murphy's law is an adage or epigram that is typically stated as: Anything that can go wrong, will go wrong. Famed writer, Arthur Bloch, in the first volume (1977) of his Murphy's Law, and Other Reasons Why Things Go WRONG series, prints a letter that he received from George E. Nichols, a quality assurance manager with the Jet Propulsion Laboratory at NASA. Nichols recalled an event that occurred in 1949 at Edwards Air Force Base, Muroc, California that, according to him, is the origination of Murphy's law, and first publicly recounted by USAF Col. John Paul Stapp. An excerpt from the letter reads: The law's namesake was Capt. Ed Murphy, a development engineer from Wright Field Aircraft Lab. Frustration with a strap transducer which was malfunctioning due to an error in wiring the strain gage bridges caused him to remark – "If there is any way to do it wrong, he will" – referring to the technician who had wired the bridges at the Lab. I assigned Murphy's law to the statement and the associated variations. A similar bit was found in the following article, which was excerpted from The Desert Wings (March 3, 1978); Murphy's Law ("If anything can go wrong, it will") was born at Edwards Air Force Base in 1949 at North Base. It was named after Capt. Edward A. Murphy, an engineer working on Air Force Project MX981, (a project) designed to see how much sudden deceleration a person can stand in a crash. One day, after finding that a transducer was wired wrong, he cursed the technician responsible and said, "If there is any way to do it wrong, he'll find it." The contractor's project manager kept a list of "laws" and added this one, which he called Murphy's Law. Actually, what he did was take an old law that had been around for years in a more basic form and give it a name. Shortly afterwards, the Air Force doctor (Dr. John Paul Stapp) gave a press conference. He said that their good safety record on the project was due to a firm belief in Murphy's Law and in the necessity to try and circumvent it. Aerospace manufacturers picked it up and used it widely in their ads during the next few months, and soon it was being quoted in many news and magazine articles. Murphy's Law as we know it today, was born. More on Capt. Murphy below: ★ Birth Name: Edward Aloysius Murphy Jr. ★ Nickname(s): Ed ★ Born: January 11, 1918; Panama Canal Zone ★ Died: July 17, 1990 (aged 72) ★ Allegiance: United States of America ★ Service/Branch: United States Army, United States Air Force ★ Years Of Service: 1940 – 1947 (USA), 1947 – 1952 (USAF) ★ Rank: Major ★ Battles/Wars: Pacific Theatre of World War II, Korean War ★ Other Work: Research in aerospace engineering and reliability engineering Edward Aloysius Murphy Jr. (January 11, 1918 – July 17, 1990) was an American aerospace engineer who worked on safety-critical systems. Born in the Panama Canal Zone in 1918, Murphy was the eldest of five children. After attending high school in New Jersey, he went to the United States Military Academy at West Point, graduating in 1940. The same year he accepted a commission into the United States Army, and undertook pilot training with the United States Army Air Corps in 1941. During World War II he served in the Pacific Theater in India, China and Burma (now known as Myanmar), achieving the rank of major. Following the end of hostilities, in 1947 Murphy attended the United States Air Force Institute of Technology, becoming R&D Officer at the Wright Air Development Center of Wright-Patterson Air Force Base. It was while here that he became involved in the high-speed rocket sled experiments (USAF project MX981, 1949) which led to the coining of Murphy's law. Murphy himself was reportedly unhappy with the commonplace interpretation of his law, which is seen as capturing the essential "cussedness" of inanimate objects. Murphy regarded the law as crystallizing a key principle of defensive design, in which one should always assume worst-case scenarios. Murphy was said by his son to have regarded the many jocular versions of the law as "ridiculous, trivial and erroneous." His attempts to have the law taken more seriously were unsuccessful. In 1952, having resigned from the United States Air Force, Murphy carried out a series of rocket acceleration tests at Holloman Air Force Base, then returned to California to pursue a career in aircraft cockpit design for a series of private contractors. He worked on crew escape systems for some of the most famous experimental aircraft of the 20th century, including the F-4 Phantom II, the XB-70 Valkyrie, the SR-71 Blackbird, the B-1 Lancer, and the X-15 rocket plane. During the 1960s, he worked on safety and life support systems for Project Apollo, and ended his career with work on pilot safety and computerized operation systems on the Apache helicopter. The Habsburg Dynasty was a dominant royal house across all of Europe for many centuries. In addition to ruling Austria for more than six centuries, royal marriages extended their power to Bohemia, Hungary, and even Spain. The enormous family branched off in many directions. Eventually, it got to a point where their strategic marriages would not increase their power, considering they already ruled most of the major courts in Europe. It finally came to a point in the late 16th century where the only monarchs left to marry were other Habsburgs. Thus, records indicate rampant incest through most of the Habsburgs’ 200-year reign of Spain in the 16th and 17th centuries. The powerful Habsburg dynasty finally crumbled in 1700 when King Charles II died with no heirs to take the throne. After generations of inbreeding, historians suggest Charles II was infertile due to congenital deformations, leading to the extinction of the Habsburg bloodline. The house also produced emperors and kings of the Kingdom of Bohemia, Kingdom of England (Jure uxoris King), Kingdom of Germany, Kingdom of Hungary, Kingdom of Croatia, Second Mexican Empire, Kingdom of Ireland (Jure uxoris King), Kingdom of Portugal, and Habsburg Spain, as well as rulers of several Dutch and Italian principalities. From the 16th century, following the reign of Charles V, the dynasty was split between its Austrian and Spanish branches. The House takes its name from Habsburg Castle, a fortress built in the 1020s in present-day Switzerland, in the canton of Aargau, by Count Radbotof Klettgau, who chose to name his fortress Habsburg. His grandson Otto II was the first to take the fortress name as his own, adding "Count of Habsburg" to his title. The House of Habsburg gathered dynastic momentum through the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries. By 1276, Count Radbot's seventh generation descendant Rudolph of Habsburg had moved the family's power base from Habsburg Castle to the Duchy of Austria. Rudolph had become King of Germany in 1273, and the dynasty of the House of Habsburg was truly entrenched in 1276 when Rudolph became ruler of Austria, which the Habsburgs ruled until 1918. The senior Spanish branch ended upon the death of Charles II of Spain in 1700 and was replaced by the House of Bourbon. The remaining Austrian branch became extinct in the male line in 1740 with the death of Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI, and completely in 1780 with the death of his eldest daughter Maria Theresa of Austria. It was succeeded by the Vaudemont branch of the House of Lorraine. The new successor house styled itself formally as the House of Habsburg-Lorraine (German: Habsburg-Lothringen), and because it was often confusingly still referred to as the House of Habsburg, historians use the unofficial appellation of the Habsburg Monarchy for the countries and provinces that were ruled by the junior Austrian branch of the House of Habsburg between 1521 and 1780 and then by the successor branch of Habsburg-Lorraine until 1918. Audie Leon Murphy (20 June 1925 – 28 May 1971) was one of the most decorated American combat soldiers of World War II, receiving every military combat award for valor available from the U.S. Army, as well as French and Belgian awards for heroism. Murphy received the Medal of Honor for valor demonstrated at the age of 19 for single-handedly holding off an entire company of German soldiers for an hour at the Colmar Pocket in France in January 1945, then leading a successful counterattack while wounded and out of ammunition. Murphy was born into a large sharecropper family in Hunt County, Texas. His father abandoned them, and his mother died when he was a teenager. Murphy left school in fifth grade to pick cotton and find other work to help support his family; his skill with a hunting rifle was a necessity for putting food on the table. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, Murphy's older sister helped him to falsify documentation about his birthdate to meet the minimum-age requirement for enlisting in the military. Turned down by the Navy and the Marine Corps, he enlisted in the Army. He first saw action in the Allied invasion of Sicily and the Battle of Anzio, and in 1944 participated in the liberation of Rome and invasion of southern France. Murphy fought at Montélimar, and led his men on a successful assault at the L'Omet quarry near Cleurie in northeastern France in October. After the war, Murphy enjoyed a 21-year acting career. He played himself in the 1955 autobiographical film To Hell and Back, based on his 1949 memoirs of the same name, but most of his roles were in westerns. He made guest appearances on celebrity television shows and starred in the series Whispering Smith. Murphy was a fairly accomplished songwriter, and bred quarter horses in California and Arizona, becoming a regular participant in horse racing. Suffering from what would today be termed posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), he slept with a loaded handgun under his pillow and looked for solace in addictive sleeping pills. In his last few years, he was plagued by money problems, but refused offers to appear in alcohol and cigarette commercials because he did not want to set a bad example. Murphy died in a plane crash in Virginia in 1971 shortly before his 46th birthday, and was interred with full military honors at Arlington National Cemetery. The military career of Murphy encompassed two separate careers. His U. S. Army service covered nine World War II campaigns fought by the 3rd Infantry Division: Tunisia, Sicily, Naples-Foggia, Anzio, Rome-Arno, Southern France, Ardennes-Alsace, Rhineland and Central Europe. He lied about his age to enlist in the United States Army in 1942. Before his 20th birthday he had earned every Army combat award for valor available during his period of service and had risen to the rank of first lieutenant. On the day he was awarded the Medal of Honor for his January 1945 actions at the Colmar Pocket in France, he was considered to be America's most decorated World War II soldier and received national recognition as such when Life magazine made him their cover story. His superior officers, as well as the Speaker of the U. S. House of Representatives, encouraged him to apply for enrollment at West Point and offered to provide any assistance and influence needed to help him be accepted as a cadet. Murphy eventually passed on the opportunity of enrollment at West Point, in part because of limitations resulting from his war injuries. At the end of his active Army service, he was given 50 percent disability classification and transferred to the Officers' Reserve Corps. The psychological effects of the war remained with him for the rest of his life in the form of combat stress. Although the military did little for Murphy's post-war stress, he was publicly forthcoming about it in hopes of prodding the government into providing better treatment and medical benefits for other veterans suffering the same issues. At the 1950 onset of the Korean War, Murphy was commissioned with the rank of captain in the 36th Infantry Division of the Texas National Guard. He was charged with training new recruits and fully believed that he and the 36th would be sent to the Korean front for combat duty. His film career began to take off in 1951, limiting Murphy's Guard involvement. The Korean Armistice Agreement of 1953 ended hostilities without the 36th ever being sent to Korea. Murphy, however, remained with the Guard actively participating in recruitment drives and allowing his name and image to be used for that purpose. He retired with the rank of major in 1966 and was transferred to the United States Army Reserve. In 1969 the Army transferred him to Retired Reserve. For his combined service in the Army and the Guard, his home state posthumously awarded Murphy the Texas Legislative Medal of Honor. For the list of awards and honors received please check: wikipedia.org/wiki/Audie_Murphy_honors_and_awards It's hard to walk down the aisle of a liquor store without running across a bottle bearing someone's name but how well do we know them? Here are the bios on the men behind your favorite alcoholic beverages. Captain Morgan:Captain Morgan is a brand of rum produced by alcohol conglomerate Diageo. It is named after the 17th-century Welsh privateer of the Caribbean, Sir Henry Morgan who died on 26 August 1688. Since 2011, the label has used the slogan "To Life, Love and Loot." Sir Henry Morgan (Henry Morgan, ca. 1635 – 25 August 1688) was a Welsh privateer, buccaneer, and admiral of the Royal Navy. He made himself famous during activities in the Caribbean, primarily raiding Spanish settlements. He earned a reputation as one of the most notorious and successful privateers in history, and one of the most ruthless among those active along the Spanish Main. Henry Morgan was the eldest son of Robert Morgan, a farmer living in the locality of Rhymney Wales. Robert Morgan (born c.1615) was a descendant from a cadet branch of the ‘Tredegar Morgans’ and had two brothers, Thomas and Edward. Major-General Sir Thomas Morgan (1st Baronet 1604-79) served in the Parliamentarian forces during the English Civil War from 1642 to 1649, was Governor of Gloucester in 1645, fought in Flanders and was wounded; in 1661, he retired to his estate in Kinnersley, Herefordshire. He was married on 10 September 1632, and had nine sons. The eldest, Sir John Morgan followed in his father's profession. He also had a sister, Catherine. An entry in the Bristol Apprentice Books showing "Servants to Foreign Plantations" 9 February 1655, included "Henry Morgan of Abergavenny, Labourer, Bound to Timothy Tounsend of Bristol, Cutler, for three years, to serve in Barbados on the like Condiciouns." Thomas was recalled in 1665 to become Governor of Jersey, and died in St. Helier in April 1679. Colonel Edward Morgan (c. 1616- after 1665) was a Royalist during the Civil War, Captain General of the King's forces in South Wales, escaped to the continent, and married Anna Petronilla, the daughter of Baron von Pollnitz, Westphalia, (governor of Lippstadt, a city 20 miles east of Dortmund, Germany). They had six children, two sons, and four daughters (including Anna Petronilla and Johanna). He was appointed Lt-Gov. of Jamaica, 1664-65. There is no record of Morgan before 1655. He later said that he left school early, and was "more used to the pike than the book." Alexandre Exquemelin, Morgan's surgeon at Panama, says that he was indentured in Barbados. After Morgan sued the publishers for libel and was awarded £200, Exquemelin was forced to retract his statement. Subsequent editions of his book were amended. Exquemelin said that Morgan came to Jamaica in 1658 as a young man, and raised himself to "fame and fortune by his valour". Recent versions of his life claim that, despite having had little experience as a sailor, Morgan sailed to the Caribbean to take part in the Western Design, Cromwell's plan to invade Hispaniola. His first battle at Santo Domingo failed to take the island. The fleet moved on to Jamaica, which the English force invaded successfully, and occupied. His uncle Edward Morgan was Lieutenant-Governor of Jamaica after the Restoration of Charles II of England in 1660. Henry Morgan married his uncle's daughter Mary, a cousin. Morgan was reportedly the "Captain Morgan" who joined the fleet of Christopher Myngs in 1663. He was part of the expedition of John Morris and Jackmann when they took the Spanish settlements at Vildemos, Mexico (on the Tabasco river); Trujillo, (Honduras) and Granada, Nicaragua. In late 1665 Morgan commanded a ship in the old privateer Edward Mansfield's expedition sent by Sir Thomas Modyford, the governor of Jamaica. They seized the islands of Providencia and Santa Catalina Island, Colombia. When Mansfield was captured by the Spanish and executed shortly afterward, the privateers elected Morgan as their admiral. Johnnie Walker:Johnnie Walker is a brand of Scotch whisky owned by Diageo that originated in Kilmarnock, Ayrshire, Scotland. It is the most widely distributed brand of blended Scotch whisky in the world, sold in almost every country, with annual sales of over 130 million bottles. John (Johnnie) Walker (1805–1857) was a Scottish grocer, who originated what would become one of the world's most famous whisky brand names, Johnnie Walker, despite the fact he was himself a teetotaler. Walker was born near Kilmarnock in Ayrshire, Scotland. When his father Alexander died in 1820 he was left £417 in trust. In 1820 the trustees invested in an Italian warehouse, grocery, and wine and spirits shop on the High Street in Kilmarnock. In 1833 John married Elizabeth Purves. He was a respected businessman, leader of the local trade association, and a Freemason. His store's stock was almost entirely destroyed in an 1852 flood, but the business recovered within a couple of years. His own whisky brand, then known as "Walker's Kilmarnock Whisky" was popular locally, although John Walker himself was a teetotaler. John's son Alexander Walker (named after John's father) had apprenticed with a tea merchant in Glasgow, and there learned the art of blending tea. When he returned to take over the business from his ailing father, he used those skills to create Old Highland Whisky, (eventually renamed Johnnie Walker Black Label) the blend that made Johnnie Walker whisky famous. Jack Daniel's Tennessee whiskey:Jack Daniel's is a brand of Tennessee whiskey and the top selling American whiskey in the world. It is produced in Lynchburg, Tennessee, by the Jack Daniel Distillery, which has been owned by the Brown-Forman Corporation since 1956. Despite being the location of a major operational distillery, Jack Daniel's home county of Moore is a dry county, so the product is not available for consumption at stores or restaurants within the county. Jasper Newton "Jack" Daniel (c. January 1849 – October 10, 1911) was an American distiller and businessman, the founder of the Jack Daniel's Tennessee whiskey distillery. Daniel was the youngest of ten children born to Calaway and Lucinda Matilda (née Cook) Daniel. His paternal grandparents immigrated to America in the late 18th century. His grandfather Joseph "Job" Daniel was born in Wales, while his grandmother, Elizabeth Calaway, was born in Scotland. He was of Welsh, Scots-Irish and Scottish descent. According to one source, Daniel was born in January 1849, in or around Lynchburg, Tennessee. A town fire had destroyed the courthouse records, and, because his mother died shortly after his birth, conflicting dates on his and his mother's headstones have left his date of birth in question. On June 26, 1851, his father remarried and then had another three children with his stepmother Matilda Vanzant. Daniel was raised in the Primitive Baptist church. The company that now owns the distillery claims that it was first licensed in 1866. However, in the 2004 biography Blood & Whiskey: The Life and Times of Jack Daniel author Peter Krass maintains that land and deed records show that the distillery was actually not founded until 1875. Daniel never married and did not have any children. However, he took his nephews under his wing – one of whom was Lemuel "Lem" Motlow (1869–1947). Motlow, a son of Jack's sister, Finetta, was skilled with numbers, and was soon doing all of the distillery's bookkeeping. In 1907, due to failing health, Daniel gave the distillery to two of his nephews. Motlow soon bought out the other nephew and went on to operate the distillery for about forty years (interrupted between 1942 and 1946 when the U.S. government banned the manufacture of whiskey due to World War II). He died in 1947. Daniel died from blood poisoning in Lynchburg in 1911. An oft-told tall tale is that the infection began in one of his toes, which Daniel injured one early morning at work by kicking his safe in anger when he could not get it open (he was said to always have had trouble remembering the combination). However, Daniel's modern biographer has asserted that the story is not true. Jose Cuervo:Jose Cuervo is a brand of tequila that was founded in 1795 by Don Jose Antonio de Cuervo. It is the best selling tequila in the world, with 35.1% market share of the tequila category worldwide and 33.66% share of the US tequila category as of July 2013, nearly twice the share of the second-leading brand. As of 2012, Jose Cuervo sells 3.5 million cases of tequila in the US annually, and a fifth of the world's tequila by volume. Jose Cuervo has always been family-owned and is run today by the Beckmann family of Mexico, direct descendants of Don Jose Antonio de Cuervo. Juan-Domingo "Dobel" Beckmann, son of Don Juan Beckmann, is the sixth-generation leader of the company. In July 2013 Proximo Spirits took over US distribution of Jose Cuervo from Diageo, who had managed it since 1997. Agave's use as a flavoring and sweetener dates back at least 2,000 years. Shortly after the Spanish conquistadors arrived in Mexico in the early 1500's, they applied their knowledge of the distillation process to pulque, an old Mexican drink made from fermented agave, to create a mezcal. This was a precursor to tequila, which is a form of mezcal. In 1758, Don Jose Antonio de Cuervo was issued a land grant by King Ferdinand VI of Spain in the town of Tequila, Jalisco. Here his family founded the Taberna de Cuervo, the farm where they would cultivate and harvest the flowering blue agave plant, a water-retaining plant found in central Mexico, that is distilled to create tequila. The first Vino Mezcal de Tequila de Jose Cuervo was made in 1795, after Don Jose Antonio de Cuervo's son Jose María Guadalupe de Cuervo was granted a permit from King Carlos IV of Spain to produce tequila commercially, following a time of prohibition under King Carlos III. This was the birth of the tequila industry. By 1880, the Cuervo family had begun individually bottling tequila for commercial distribution. Cuervo was the first distiller to bottle tequila, at a time when other distillers were still using barrels. Tequila was known as "mezcal de tequila" until 1893, when tequila makers and the Mexican government dropped "mezcal" from the name. Cuervo's first bottled tequila was sold in 1906. Upon the death of Don Jesus, his wife, Ana Gonzalez Rubio, inherited La Rojeña and in 1900 married Jose Cuervo Labastida, head of La Constancia. From then on, the brand became Jose Cuervo Tequila. After Ana Gonzalez Rubio's death in 1934, the estate was left to her niece Guadalupe Gallardo, who died in 1966 and left the estate to her sister, Virginia Gallardo. One of her sons, Juan Beckmann Gallardo, would manage the business. Part of Cuervo was owned by Distribuidora Bega, and, starting in 1979, the other part was owned by Grupo Cuervo, made up of Beckmann, his son Juan Beckmann Vidal, Jose Luis Campos, and Heublein Inc. Jim Beam:Jim Beam is a brand of bourbon whiskey produced in Clermont, Kentucky by Beam Suntory. It is one of the best selling brands of bourbon in the world. Since 1795 (interrupted by Prohibition), seven generations of the Beam family have been involved in whiskey production for the company that produces the brand, which was given the name "Jim Beam" in 1933 in honor of James B. Beam, who rebuilt the business after Prohibition ended. The Jim Beam Bourbon brand is now owned and produced by Beam Suntory, which is a subsidiary of Suntory Holdings of Osaka, Japan. During the late 18th century, members of the Bohm family, who eventually changed the spelling of their surname to "Beam", emigrated from Germany and settled in Kentucky. Johannes "Reginald" Beam (1770–1834) was a farmer who began producing whiskey in the style that became known as bourbon. Jacob Beam sold his first barrels of corn whiskey around 1795. The whiskey was first called Old Jake Beam, and the distillery was known as Old Tub. David Beam (1802–1854) took on his father's responsibilities in 1820 at the age of 18, expanding distribution of the family's bourbon during a time of industrial revolution. David M. Beam (1833–1913) in 1854 moved the distillery to Nelson County to capitalize on the growing network of railroad lines connecting states. James Beauregard Beam (1864–1947) managed the family business before and after Prohibition, rebuilding the distillery in 1933 in Clermont, Kentucky, near his Bardstown home. James B. Beam Distilling Company was founded in 1935 by Harry L. Homel, Oliver Jacobson, H. Blum and Jerimiah Beam. From this point forward, the bourbon would be called "Jim Beam Bourbon" after James Beauregard Beam, and some of the bottle labels bear the statement, "None Genuine Without My Signature" with the signature James B. Beam. T. Jeremiah Beam (1899–1977) started working at the Clear Springs distillery in 1913, later becoming the master distiller and overseeing operations at the new Clermont facility. Jeremiah Beam eventually gained full ownership and opened a second distillery near Boston, Kentucky, in 1954. Jeremiah later teamed up with childhood friend Jimberlain Joseph Quinn, to expand the enterprise. Booker Noe (1929–2004), birth name Frederick Booker Noe II, grandson of Jim Beam, was the Master Distiller at the Jim Beam Distillery for more than 40 years, working closely with Master Distiller Jerry Dalton (1998–2007). In 1987 Booker introduced his own namesake bourbon, Booker's, the company's first uncut, straight-from-the-barrel bourbon, and the first of the company's "Small Batch Bourbon Collection". Fred Noe (1957–present), birth name Frederick Booker Noe III, became the seventh generation Beam family distiller in 2007 and regularly travels for promotional purposes. The Beam family has also played a major role in the history of the Heaven Hill Distillery. All of the Master Distillers at Heaven Hill since its founding have been members of the Beam family. The original Master Distiller at Heaven Hill was Joseph L. Beam, Jim Beam's first cousin. He was followed by his son, Harry, who was followed by Earl Beam, the son of Jim Beam's brother, Park. Earl Beam was then succeeded by the current Heaven Hill Master Distillers, Parker Beam and his son, Craig Beam. In 1987, Jim Beam purchased National Brands, acquiring brands including Old Crow, Bourbon de Luxe, Old Taylor, Old Grand-Dad, and Sunny Brook. Old Taylor was subsequently sold to the Sazerac Company. On August 4, 2003, a fire destroyed a Jim Beam aging warehouse in Bardstown, Kentucky. It held about 19,000 barrels of bourbon. Flames rose more than 100 feet from the burning structure. Burning bourbon spilled from the warehouse and set a nearby creek on fire. An estimated 19,000 fish died of the bourbon in the creek and a river. For some period of time, Jim Beam was part of the holding company formerly known as Fortune Brands that was dismantled in 2011. Other parts of the remaining company were spun off as an IPO on the NYSE on the same day, as Fortune Brands Home & Security, and the liquor division of the holding company was renamed Beam, Inc. on October 4, 2011. In January 2014, it was announced that Jim Beam would be purchased by Suntory Holdings Ltd., a Japanese group of brewers & distillers known for producing Japan's first whiskey. Suntory agreed to acquire Jim Beam, Maker's Mark, Teacher's Highland Cream and Laphroaig distillery Scotch whiskies for approximately $13.62 billion and also take on Beam's debt. This deal is the biggest Suntory has ever agreed to and will elevate them to the third largest maker of distilled drinks in the world. The combined company is expected to have annual sales of spirits products of more than $4.3 billion. Suntory will pay $83.50 per share, a 25 percent premium to Beam's Friday closing price of $66.97. The companies put the deal's value at about $16 billion, including debt. According to press releases regarding the deal, the Illinois-based Jim Beam will continue to be managed by its current leadership. Beam and Suntory unanimously approved the transaction; however, the deal needs to be approved by Beam Inc. stockholders. If approved by its shareholders, the deal is expected to close by June 30, 2014. Jim Beam and Suntory have a previous partnership where they would freely distribute each other's brands in different markets. The Mafia has controlled everything from the street corner drug trade to the highest levels of government. Glorified by movies and television, hounded by law enforcement officials, marked for death by their enemies, mobsters live violent and often brief lives. The Mafia at its core is about one thing - money. Still, there are secret rituals, complicated rules and tangled webs of family loyalty. In this article, we'll find out how people get into the Mafia, what the Mafia does and what law enforcement agencies have done to stop them. We'll also learn about the important people and events that have shaped this not-so-secret society An Overview:Today, the word "mafia" is used to refer to almost any organized crime group, and in some cases is even used to describe groups completely unrelated to crime. In this article, we will focus on the traditional meaning of "mafia": organized criminal organizations of Italian or Sicilian heritage. In organized crime there is a hierarchy, with higher-ranking members making decisions that trickle down to the other members of the family. The Mafia is not a single group or gang - it is made up of many families that have, at times, fought each other in bitter, bloody gang wars. At other times, they have cooperated in the interest of greater profits, sometimes even serving on a "Commission" that made major decisions affecting all the families (more on the Commission later). Most of the time, though, they simply agree to stay out of each other's way. Mafia-dom is neither a political nor a religious affiliation. Because of their Italian roots, many Mafioso are Catholic, but part of the oath a mobster takes when he becomes a "made man" - a member of a Mafia family - is that the Mafia comes before birth family and God. ★ La Cosa Nostra - The term “cosa nostra”, which is sometimes translated from Italian to mean "our thing," originally referred to the general lifestyle of organized criminals in Sicily. When the Mafia moved to the United States, FBI agents listening in on wiretaps heard the term. They began using the term La Cosa Nostra (which is grammatically incorrect) to refer to the Mafia. In time, La Cosa Nostra referred specifically to American Mafioso, differentiating them from "old world" mobsters. ★ Omerta - Omerta is the Mafia code of silence. ★ Made man - This is a man who has been officially inducted into a Mafia family. ★ Capo - The capo was originally the head of a family in Sicily. Now, the capo is more like a lieutenant who serves the family boss. ★ The Family - Each individual gang within the Mafia is known as a family. Not everyone within a family is actually related to one and other, although it is common for relatives of mobsters to be inducted into the same family as their brothers or fathers. ★ Wiseguy - This is someone who is involved with the Mafia. The Structure:The structure described below refers specifically to La Cosa Nostra. Other groups have similar structures, but they may differ in some ways. Each group is made up of several gangs, known as families. The number of families can range from fewer than 10 to more than 100. Sometimes, the emergence of a new family must be approved by the heads of other families, while in some cases a group can splinter off from another family and consolidate its power, becoming recognized as a new family over time. Each family has separate business dealings, but the dealings of the families can intermingle to a large extent depending on their proximity to one another and the commonality of their ventures. The leader of each family is known as the boss, or don. All major decisions are made by the boss, and money made by the family ultimately flows to him. The boss's authority is needed to resolve disputes and keep everyone in line. Just below the boss is the underboss. The underboss is the second in command, although the amount of power he wields can vary. Some underbosses resolve disputes without involving the boss. Some are groomed to replace the boss if he is old or in danger of going to jail. Beneath the underboss are several capos. The number of capos varies depending on the overall size of the family. A capo acts like a lieutenant, leading his own section of the family. He has specific activities that he operates. The capo's territory may be defined geographically (as in, "everything west of 14th Street belongs to Louie 'The Key' DiBartolo.") or by the rackets he operates ("Alfonze 'Big Al' Maggioli is in charge of illegal gambling."). The key to being a successful capo is making money. The capo keeps some of the money his rackets earn and then passes the rest up to the underboss and boss. The "dirty work" is done by the soldiers. A soldier is the lowest rank among made men. They're part of the family, but they hold little power and make relatively little money. The number of soldiers that belong to any given capo can vary tremendously. In addition to soldiers, the Mafia will use associates. Associates are not actual members of the Mafia, but they work with Mafia soldiers and capos on various criminal enterprises. An associate is simply someone who works with the mob, including anyone from a burglar or drug dealer to a lawyer, investment banker, police officer or politician. There is one other position within the family that is somewhat legendary - the consigliere. The consigliere is not supposed to be part of the family's hierarchy. He is supposed to act as an advisor and make impartial decisions based on fairness rather than personal feelings or vendettas. This position is meant to be elected by the members of the family, rather than appointed by the boss. In reality, consiglieres are sometimes appointed and are not always impartial. Divisions:The Mafia is not an actual organization itself. There is no head of the Mafia. Instead, the word Mafia is an umbrella term that refers to any of several groups of gangsters who can trace their roots to Italy or Sicily. In broad terms, there are five Mafia groups, defined mainly by the regions they operate in or the regions they originated in. All five groups have their hands in criminal operations that span the globe and have set up operatives in many different nations. The Sicilian Mafia originated on the island of Sicily. The Camorra Mafia began in Naples, and the Calabrian Mafia originated in Italy's Calabrian region. The Sacra Corona Unita is a more recent group based in the Puglia region of Italy. Finally, La Cosa Nostra is the American Mafia, although this group can trace its history back to Sicilian families as well as some of the other Italian groups. There isn't a clear naming convention when it comes to Mafia families. Early families were named after the region or town in Italy where they came from. Sometimes, the name of the family would change to the name of the boss, especially if he was a powerful or long-standing boss. The five main New York City families had their names set semi-permanently by the testimony of informer Joe Valachi before a Senate subcommittee in 1962 and 1963. The families were named for the current bosses, although in one case, it was an earlier, more powerful boss whose name would be used. These five families were the Bonanno, Genovese, Gambino, Luchese and Profaci. The Profaci family was taken over by Joseph Colombo a few years later, and he became so famous that the family is now known as the Colombo family. The same thing nearly happened to the Gambino family when it was taken over by John Gotti - but before it became the Gotti family, Gotti was arrested and convicted of racketeering and murder, based largely on the testimony of Mafia traitor Sammy "The Bull" Gravano. Most of the other U.S. families are simply named for the city they operate in. Thus, you have the Philadelphia family, the Buffalo family, the Cleveland family and so on. Induction:The details of a Mafia induction ceremony were a carefully kept secret for decades. But in the early 1960s, Joe Valachi's testimony before a Senate subcommittee shined a spotlight on the mob. The Mafia induction described here is the ceremony conducted by the Sicilian Mafia as well as most American Mafia families. Circumstances can alter some of the details of the ceremony, such as an induction in prison or a quick induction during a gang war. First, the potential gangster is told simply to "dress up" or "get dressed." He is taken to a private place and seated at a long table, right next to the boss. Other Mafioso who are present will join hands and recite oaths and promises of loyalty. The inductee must then hold a burning piece of paper. In some families, the new soldier is paired with a more experienced mobster who will act as his "godfather," guiding him into Mafia life. The inductee must promise that he will be a member of the family for life, and then a drop of blood is drawn from his trigger finger. It takes more than just an oath and a drop of blood to get into the Mafia, however. Only men of Italian heritage are allowed in. In some families, both parents must be Italian, while some only require an Italian father. The prospective mobster must also show a penchant for making money or at the very least a willingness to commit acts of violence when ordered to. Usually, the criminal must pass a test before he will be considered for induction, and this test is commonly rumoured to be some sort of participation in an act of murder. There is one last obstacle that some mobsters face when they try to become made men - the Commission. In the 1920s and '30s, the Mafia families in the United States were almost constantly at war with one another. They would often recruit new soldiers by the dozens so rival families wouldn't recognize them as enemies. These new recruits could easily approach members of other families and assassinate them. To put a stop to this, the Commission began requiring all the families to make a list of their prospective members and circulate the list among the other families. In addition to eliminating unrecognizable family members, this also allowed the bosses to weed out prospective’s that other families had problems with. If those prospective’s became made men, individual disagreements could grow into violent wars between families. Activities:The ultimate point of the Mafia is to make money. Families use a variety of activities to accomplish this. One of the most common is also one of the simplest - extortion. Extortion is forcing people to give up their money by threatening them in some way. Mafia "protection rackets" are extortion schemes. They tell a shop owner that she needs to pay them $100 a week so they can "protect" her from criminals who might demolish the shop or hurt her family - the implication being that the Mafia members themselves are these criminals. The Mafia makes money by participating in virtually any activity that is illegal. Illegal goods are expensive, untaxed and unregulated. Over the years, mobsters have dealt in alcohol during Prohibition, illegal drugs, prostitution and illegal gambling. Sometimes, burglaries and muggings generate income, but the capos know that their activities need a grander scale to ensure maximum profit. This is why they hijack trucks and unload entire shipments of stolen goods. Another method used by Mafioso is to pay off truck drivers or dock workers, who will "misplace" crates and shipments that later end up in Mafia hands. The stolen goods could be anything from stereo equipment to women's clothing (a favourite of John Gotti early in his career). One of the most notorious Mafia schemes was the infiltration of labour unions. For several decades, it is believed that every major construction project in New York City was controlled by the Mafia. Mobsters paid off or threatened union leaders to get a piece of the action whenever a union group got a construction job, and they sometimes made their way into the ranks of leadership themselves. And once the Mafia had its grip firmly on a union, it could control an entire industry. Mafioso could get workers to slow or halt construction if contractors or developers didn't make the right payoffs, and they had access to huge union pension funds. At one point, the Mafia could have brought nearly all construction and shipping in the United States to a halt. But the last 20 years have seen the federal government crack down on Mafia-union connections to a great extent. The current structure of the Mafia took centuries to develop. To learn about the history of the mafia and to see how law enforcement has dealt with organized crime over the years. More in the conclusion of this article. THE HISTORY:The current structure of the Mafia took centuries to develop. It all began on the island of Sicily. Although there are major organized crime groups from other parts of Italy, the Sicilian Mafia is generally considered to be the blueprint for all other Mafia organizations. Several unique factors contributed to the development of organized crime on Sicily. The island is located at an easily accessible and strategically important place in the Mediterranean Sea. As a result, Sicily was invaded, conquered and occupied by hostile forces many times. This led to an overall distrust of central authority and codified legal systems. The family, rather than the state, became the focus of Sicilian life, and disputes were settled through a system in which punishment was dealt beyond the limits of the law. In the 19th century, the European feudal system finally collapsed in Sicily. With no real government or functioning authority of any kind, the island quickly descended into lawlessness. Certain landowners and other powerful men began to build reputations and eventually came to be seen as local leaders. They were known as capos. The capos used their power to extract tributes from farmers under their authority (much like the feudal lords before them). Their authority was enforced through the threat of violence. Their criminal activities were never reported, even by the victims, because of the fear of reprisal. This was the beginning of the Sicilian Mafia. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MAFIA:In the early 1900's, organized crime had so thoroughly infiltrated Sicilian life that it was virtually impossible to avoid contact with the Mafia. Dictator Benito Mussolini cracked down on the Mafia using harsh, often brutal methods. But when U.S. troops occupied Sicily during World War II, they mistook the many jailed criminals for political prisoners and not only set those free, but also appointed many of them as mayors and police chiefs. Before long, the Mafia had a firm grasp on Italy's Christian Democrat party. In the post-war years, the various competing Sicilian families realized that their constant fighting was costing them money. They called a ceasefire and formed a group called the Cupola that would oversee the operations of all the families and approve all major enterprises and assassinations. A similar system would be put in place by the American families in the 1950s. While these committees did succeed in stifling gang wars for a time, they also left the bosses vulnerable to prosecution because with the Cupola in place, bosses personally approved murders. The fight against the Sicilian Mafia came to a head in the 1980s. Two very prominent government prosecutors who had done a lot of damage to the Mafia were assassinated in bombings. The public was outraged, and the government eventually responded with the so-called Maxi trial. More than 400 Mafioso were tried in a specially built bunker. Large cells in the back of the courtroom held the defendants, who would often scream and threaten witnesses as the trial went on. Ultimately, 338 were found guilty. This wasn't enough to stamp out Sicily's Mafia, however. In 1992, the Italian government sent 7,000 military troops to Sicily. They occupied the island until 1998. The Sicilian Mafia still exists today and is still active, but it is quieter and less violent. In the next section, we'll see how the Mafia came to the United States. AMERICAN MAFIA:Sicilians and other Italians began immigrating to the United States in the 1800's, but a major wave of them arrived on American shores early in the 20th century. While the vast majority of them worked hard at building a new life for their family through legal means, some of them brought the ways of the Sicilian Mafia with them. The first major Mafia incident occurred in New Orleans in the 1890's. A Sicilian crime family was pressured by the local chief of police, who was then murdered. When the mobsters were tried, they bribed witnesses and were acquitted. Anti-Italian fervour erupted, and a lynch mob went to the jailhouse. The mob shot or hanged 16 men. Mafia families spread through the country in the first half of the 20th century, emanating from New York City, where five families vied for control. The era of Prohibition poured vast amounts of money into Mafia coffers as they sold illegal alcohol in speakeasies around the country. Their power during this period grew exponentially, and wars between the families broke out. There was an epidemic of Mafia violence in the early 1930s - bosses and underbosses were assassinated regularly, with few bosses ruling their families for more than a few months before they got killed. The Luchese family went through three or four bosses in 1930 alone. In the middle of this bloodbath (and helping to orchestrate much of it) was a mobster named Charles "Lucky" Luciano. Luciano attained a position of great power throughout La Cosa Nostra, and he threw his support behind an idea that had been floating around for some time - the formation of a multi-family commission that would approve Mafia activities nationwide. THE COMMISSION:The Commission is a governing body of the Mafia in the United States. Although its makeup has changed several times since its 1931 creation, the bosses of the New York Five Families still provide the core membership of The Commission. The predecessor organization was the National Crime Syndicate which was a national alliance with many organized crime figures. Reasons For The Commission's Formation: Pre-Commission: The Commission was established in 1931 by Lucky Luciano in Atlantic City, New Jersey. The purpose of the Mafia Commission was to replace the old Sicilian mafia regime and establish rule by consensus among the new crime families. Historically, such a system has always been in place. In Sicily, heads of different cosche would meet periodically to discuss business, and in America, the same was true. In his memoirs, Nicola Gentile, a Sicilian-born Mafioso, does not regard the Commission as either particularly new or innovative. He viewed its creation as merely a formalization of already existing consultative practices widespread among the mafia. In early 1931, after winning the bloody Castellammarese War among the New York gangs, New York Boss Salvatore Maranzano divided all the national criminal gangs into several crime families and then assumed the title capo di tutti capi ("boss of all bosses"). Maranzano then proceeded to impose a dictatorial regime on the families. Since there had never historically been a "boss of all bosses", reaction to this move among the mafia's ranks was largely negative. Luciano, then a Maranzano ally, soon chafed under this harsh control and in September 1931 engineered Maranzano's assassination. Luciano then became the top mobster in the country. Unlike Maranzano, Luciano did not want to become a "boss of all bosses". At the same time, Luciano wanted to avoid the chaos that had led to bloody and self-destructive gang wars in New York and Chicago during the 1920s. Luciano and Meyer Lansky realized that the best solution was to let the families run themselves, but establish a central organization for settling their differences without bloodshed. This would preserve family control, prevent warfare, promote their business interests, and keep the mob away from public and law enforcement attention. Luciano established a mob board of directors - to be known as "The Commission" - to oversee all Mafia activities in the US and serve to mediate conflicts between families. Luciano assumed the position of chairman and Lansky served as his chief advisor. The Commission would meet every five years or when needed to discuss family problems. Even though the commission was meant to replace the role of capo di tutti capi, there would be various bosses over the years who would assume the role through the de facto process of controlling other dons on the commission. Charles "Lucky" Luciano, Stefano Magaddino, Carlo Gambino, and Vincent Gigante are examples of influential family bosses who exercised control over the Commission. Post-Formation: The formation of the Commission did not stop all gang wars, but it did reduce their scale and frequency. When one family declared war on another, the aggressor family usually found itself at war with the Commission and the rest of the families. This provided a powerful incentive to the families to negotiate their disputes. To settle wars or internal conflicts, the Commission would appoint a new Don of the Family and have the usurper or the previous Don assassinated. An example of this is the case of the Bonanno family in the Bonanno War. Structure: The Commission officially comprised seven family bosses: the leaders of New York's Five Families (Lucky Luciano, Joseph Bonanno, Joe Profaci, Vincent Mangano, and Tommy Gagliano) and the "Fathers" from Chicago (Al Capone), representing everything in the Western United States, and Buffalo (Stefano Magaddino). However, after the 1957 Apalachin Convention, it was decided that two more leaders of the families were allowed into the Commission. These turned out to be Angelo "Gentle Don" Bruno of the Philadelphia crime family, and Joseph "Joe Z." Zerilli of the Detroit Partnership, although these positions declined much over the 1960s and 1970s. Jack Dragna, boss of the Los Angeles crime family for 25 years, also held a seat on the National Commission. Since his death in 1956, the crime family has been represented by the Chicago Outfit. In 1931, Luciano and Lansky set up a multi-ethnic board, commonly referred to as the national syndicate or "combination". Non-Italian Jewish mobsters such as Louis Buchalter, Longy Zwillman and Jake Guzik were also allowed to participate in the syndicate's meetings per the Murder Inc. investigation by Brooklyn DA's office (William O'Dwyer) in late 1930's thru mid 1940's and surveillance by Federal Bureau of Narcotics. Although largely acting in the shadows (which helped explain Lansky's eventual "untouchability"), Lansky was able to exercise a good deal of influence (even talking Luciano and the Commission out of putting out a contract on Bugsy Siegel on two occasions.) With the demise of Murder Inc and the deaths of many leading members such as Bugsy Siegel, the national syndicate seems to have been defunct by the late 1950s. Executive Position: There was no "ruler" of the Commission, but there was a nominated Chairman or Head of the National Commission. This was used as a substitute to the role of capo di tutti capi, as that had the connotations of the old Mustache Pete system of one-man rule. However, after the Havana Conference, Lucky Luciano took this title anyway so as to solidify his rule after being deported from the United States by the actions of Governor Thomas Dewey. Judicial: This service had to be authorized by the Commission by vote first, along with the number of targets. Even then the number of targets was usually limited to one or a few individuals. This way the Commission avoided a confusing situation that could result in a war, and minimized possible press exposure. Historical Leadership Of The Commission: Chairman of the commission: ★1931-1936 - Lucky Luciano (arrested in 1936 stayed chairman, but had less authority over the commission. He was deported in 1946, and finally lost his title in late 1950s.) ★ Acting 1936-1951 – was a 4 family alliance which was considered the conservative faction. The alliance consisted of the of Buffalo family boss Stefano Magaddino, Mangano family (later called Gambino family) boss Vincent Mangano, Profaci family (later called Colombo family) boss Joe Profaci and Bonanno family boss Joe Bonanno. ★ Acting 1951-1957 – the alliance that was considered a liberal faction. Supported by Lucky Luciano in Italy, the members were Frank Costello (leading the Luciano family), Albert Anastasia (who replaced Mangano), Tony Accardo (of the Chicago outfit) and later Tommy Lucchese. ★ 1957-1959 – Vito Genovese - boss of Genovese Crime Family and disputed heaof the commission. ★ Genovese and his new liberal faction of Carlo Gambino, Tommy Lucchese. He was later disposed of by the Costello, Luciano, Gambino and Lucchese alliance. Genovese's fall began at the Apalachin Conference in New York. He was later arrested in 1959 ending his regime. ★ 1959-1976 – Carlo Gambino - boss of Gambino Crime Family and head of commission until his natural death. He was allied with Tommy Lucchese (boss of Lucchese family) and retired Frank Costello. ★ 1976-1985 - Paul Castellano –boss of Gambino family and head of commission until his was murdered in December 1985. ★ 1986-2005 – Vincent Gigante –boss of Genovese family and head of commission until his natural death. ★ 2005 – Present - Unknown The Commission Today: The Commission is still reported to exist today, though its current membership is composed of only the bosses of the Five Families, the Chicago Outfit, and the Philadelphia crime family leaders. Its activities, like much of the Mafia in general, have receded from public view as a matter of necessity. The current heads of the families believed to be on the Commission are: ★ Bonanno crime family - Vacant ★ Chicago Outfit - Boss John DiFronzo ★ Colombo crime family - Unknown ★ Gambino crime family - Daniel Marino, Bartolomeo "Bobby" Vernace, and John Gambino (Ruling Panel) ★ Genovese crime family - Unknown ★ Lucchese crime family - Aniello "Neil" Migliore, Joseph DiNapoli and Matthew Madonna (Ruling Panel) ★ Philadelphia crime family - Boss Joseph Ligambi The Five Families:The term was first used in 1931, when Salvatore Maranzano formally organized the previously warring gangs into what are now known as the Bonanno, Colombo, Gambino, Genovese, and Lucchese crime families, each with demarcated territory, organizationally structured in a now-familiar hierarchy, and having them reporting up to the same overarching governing entity. Initially Maranzano intended each family's boss to report to him as the capo di tutti capi (boss of all bosses), but this led to his assassination and by September the role was replaced by The Commission, which continues to govern American Mafia activities in the United States and Canada. The crime families originated out of New York City Sicilian Mafia gangs. Salvatore Maranzano formally organized them in the summer of 1931, after the April 15 murder of Giuseppe Masseria, in what has become known as the Castellammarese War. Maranzano introduced the now-familiar Mafia hierarchy: boss (capofamiglia), underboss (sotto capo), advisor (consigliere), captain (caporegime), soldier (soldato), and associate; and declared himself capo di tutti capi (boss of all bosses). By declaring himself boss of all bosses, Maranzano was breaking the deal he had made with Lucky Luciano in which the gangsters agreed that they would be equals, in exchange for Luciano agreeing to help murder Masseria. For reneging, Maranzano was murdered on September 10, 1931, on Luciano's orders. The boss of all bosses position was then eliminated in favor of The Commission. The Commission would consist of the head of each of the Five Families, plus the heads of the Buffalo crime family and the Chicago Outfit. The council would serve as the governing body of the American Mafia, settling disputes, including demarcating territory among the previously warring factions and would govern all activities in the United States and Canada. Names: By 1963, when they were publicly disclosed in the Valachi hearings, the family names had changed and were based on their bosses at the time, Joseph Bonanno, Carlo Gambino, Vito Genovese, Tommy Lucchese and Joseph Profaci. Other than the Profaci family, which was renamed the Colombo family, the names have remained unchanged. Territories: The crime families historically operated throughout the New York Metropolitan area, but mainly within New York City. In the state of New York the gangs have increased their criminal rackets on Long Island (Nassau and Suffolk) and the counties of Westchester, Rockland, and Albany. They also maintain a strong presence in the state of New Jersey. The Five Families are also active in South Florida, Connecticut, Las Vegas, and Massachusetts. ★ The Bonanno crime family operates mainly in Brooklyn, Queens, Staten Island, and Long Island. The family also maintains influence in Manhattan, The Bronx, Westchester County, New Jersey, California, and Florida, and have ties to the Montreal Mafia in Quebec. ★ Bath Avenue Crew operated in the Bensonhurst section of Brooklyn, New York. ★The Colombo crime family operates mainly in Brooklyn, Queens, and Long Island. The family also maintains influence in Staten Island, Manhattan, The Bronx, New Jersey, and Florida. ★ The Gambino crime family operates mainly in Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, Staten Island, and Long Island. The family also maintains influence in The Bronx, New Jersey, Westchester County, Connecticut, Grand Rapids Michigan, Florida, and Los Angeles. ★ The Ozone Park Boys operate in Queens and Long Island. ★ The Genovese crime family operates mainly in Manhattan, The Bronx, Brooklyn, and New Jersey. The family also maintains influence in Queens, Staten Island, Long Island, Westchester County, Rockland County, Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Florida. ★ 116th Street Crew operates in Upper Manhattan and The Bronx ★ Greenwich Village Crew operates in Greenwich Village in Lower Manhattan ★ Genovese crime family New Jersey faction operates throughout the state of New Jersey ★ The Lucchese crime family operates mainly in The Bronx, Manhattan, Brooklyn, and New Jersey. The family also maintains influence in Queens, Long Island, Staten Island, Westchester County, and Florida. ★ Cutaia Crew operates in Brooklyn, Queens, and Long Island ★ Lucchese crime family New Jersey faction operates throughout New Jersey ★ The Tanglewood Boys was a "recruitment gang" that operated in Westchester County, The Bronx, and Manhattan. The origins of the MafiosoLets take a look at the real men behind behind the mob. The origins of the Mafioso. The worlds most famous mafioso are considered to be Meyer Lansky &Benjamin "Bugsy" Siegel, both children of immigrants, were friends before becoming two of New York's leading crime figures. They joined forces with another Lower East Side neighbor, Charles "Lucky" Luciano, who became one of the city's top crime bosses. Along the way, they worked with such compatriots as Frank Costello and Vito Genovese - both of whom eventually rose to power in their own rights. These men raked in cash from a wealth of illegal operations, including bootlegging, gambling, prostitution, racketeering, extortion and even murder. They let no one stand in their way in the quest for money and control, leaving a trail of bodies in their wake. Let's meet some of the founding figures of the American mob. MEYER LANSKY - THE MOB'S ACCOUNTANT:Meyer Lansky (born Meier Suchowlanski; July 4, 1902 – January 15, 1983). Lansky developed a gambling empire which stretched across the world. He was said to own points (percentages) in casinos in Las Vegas, Cuba, The Bahamas and London. Although a member of the Jewish Mob, Lansky undoubtedly had strong influence with the Italian Mafia and played a large role in the consolidation of the criminal underworld. Despite nearly fifty years as a member-participant in organized crime, Lansky was never found guilty of anything more serious than illegal gambling. He has a legacy of being one of the most successful (in terms of finance) gangsters in American history. The long arm of the law only caught up with Lansky once. In 1953, he spent two months in prison on a gambling charge. Lansky, unlike many of his contemporaries, managed to live to the ripe old age of 81. He died in Miami Beach, Florida, in 1983. BUGSY SIEGEL - THE CRAZY ONE:A sharply dressed yet cold-blooded killer, Benjamin "Bugsy" Siegel is believed to have murdered more than 30 people. The son of Jewish immigrants from Russia, Brooklyn-born Benjamin Bugsy Siegel was just a kid when he launched his first criminal business. He ran his own protection racket and later graduated to armed robbery and murder. He hated the nickname "Bugsy," which referred to "bug" - a slang word for crazy. Still the name stuck because of his unpredictable, violent nature. Siegel later teamed up with childhood friend Meyer Lansky to build a thriving bootlegging empire. The pair also started up a successful murder-for-hire business with Siegel sometimes acting as the trigger man. He is thought to have been one of the shooters who took out Giuseppe "Joe the Boss" Masseria. Siegel traveled to Las Vegas, Nevada where he handled and financed some of the original casinos. He assisted developer William Wilkerson's Flamingo Hotel after Wilkerson ran out of funds. Siegel took over the project and managed the final stages of construction. The Flamingo opened on December 26, 1946 to poor reception and soon closed. It reopened in March 1947 with a finished hotel. Three months later, on June 20, 1947, Siegel was shot dead at the Beverly Hills home of his girlfriend, Virginia Hill. On the night of June 20, 1947, as Siegel sat with his associate Allen Smiley in Virginia Hill's Beverly Hills home reading the Los Angeles Times, an assailant fired at him through the window with a .30 caliber military M1 carbine, hitting him many times, including twice in the head. No one was charged with the murder, and the crime remains officially unsolved. LUCKY LUCIANO - FATHER OF ORGANIZED CRIME:Lucky Luciano started out life as Salvatore Lucania, born in Sicily in 1897. He arrived in New York with his family in 1906, and it wasn't long before he turned to crime. His first extortion racket was squeezing his fellow students for protection pay-offs. Luciano dropped out of school and moved onto other illegal endeavors. Luciano soon became a top aide in the Masseria organization. In contrast to Rothstein, Masseria was an uneducated man with poor manners and limited managerial skills. By the late 1920s, Masseria's main rival was boss Salvatore Maranzano, who had come from Sicily to run the Castellammarese clan activities. Maranzano didn't want to pay commission to Masseria, and the ensuing rivalry eventually escalated into the infamous Castellammarese War, which raged from 1928 to 1931 and resulted in the deaths of both Maranzano and Masseria. Masseria and Maranzano were so-called "Mustache Petes": older, traditional Mafia bosses who had started their criminal careers in Italy. They believed in upholding the supposed Old World Mafia principles of "honor", "tradition", "respect", and "dignity". These bosses refused to work with non-Italians, and were even skeptical of working with non-Sicilians. Some of the most traditional bosses only worked with men with roots in their own Sicilian village. Luciano, in contrast, was willing to work with Italian, Jewish, and Irish gangsters. For this reason, he was shocked to hear traditional Sicilian mafiosi lecture him about his dealings with close friend Frank Costello, whom they called "the dirty Calabrian". Luciano soon began cultivating ties with other younger mobsters who had been born in Italy, but began their criminal careers in the United States. Known as the Young Turks, they chafed at their bosses' conservatism. Luciano wanted to use lessons he learned from Rothstein to turn their gang activities into criminal empires. As the war progressed, this group came to include future mob leaders such as Costello, Vito Genovese, Albert Anastasia, Joe Adonis, Joe Bonanno, Carlo Gambino, Joe Profaci, Tommy Gagliano, and Tommy Lucchese. The Young Turks believed that their bosses' greed and conservatism were keeping them poor while the Irish and Jewish gangs got rich. Luciano's vision was to form a national crime syndicate in which the Italian, Jewish, and Irish gangs could pool their resources and turn organized crime into a lucrative business for all. In October 1929, Luciano was forced into a limousine at gun point by three men, beaten and stabbed, and dumped on a beach on Staten Island. He somehow survived the ordeal but was forever marked with a scar and droopy eye. The identity of his abductors was never established. When picked up by the police after the beating, Luciano said that he had no idea who did it. However, in 1953, Luciano told an interviewer that it was the police who kidnapped and beat him. Another story was that Maranzano ordered the attack. The most important consequence of this episode was the press coverage it engendered, introducing Luciano to the New York public. Luciano, on the urging of former Chicago boss Johnny Torrio, set up the Commission to serve as the governing body for organized crime. Designed to settle all disputes and decide which families controlled which territories, the Commission has been called Luciano's greatest innovation. Luciano's goals with the Commission were to quietly maintain his own power over all the families, and to prevent future gang wars. The Commission was originally composed of representatives of the Five Families of New York City, the Philadelphia crime family, the Buffalo crime family, the Los Angeles crime family, and the Chicago Outfit of Al Capone; later, the Detroit crime family and Kansas City crime family were added. The Commission also provided representation for the Irish and Jewish criminal organizations in New York. All Commission members were supposed to retain the same power and had one vote, but in reality some families and bosses were more powerful than others. The Commission's first test as an authority came in 1935 when it ordered gang boss Dutch Schultz to drop his plans to murder Special Prosecutor Thomas Dewey. Luciano argued that a Dewey assassination would precipitate a massive law enforcement crackdown. When Schultz announced that he was going to kill Dewey (or his Assistant David Asch) in the next three days, regardless of the Commission's instructions, the Commission quickly arranged Schultz's murder. On October 24, 1935, Schultz was murdered in a tavern in Newark, New Jersey. On January 26, 1962, Luciano died of a heart attack at Naples International Airport. Luciano had gone to the airport to meet with American producer Martin Gosch about a film based on his life. To avoid antagonizing other Cosa Nostra members, Luciano had previously refused to authorize a film, but reportedly relented after Lissoni's death. After the meeting with Gosch, Luciano was stricken with a heart attack and died. Luciano was unaware that Italian drug agents had followed him to the airport in anticipation of arresting him on drug smuggling charges. VITO GENOVESE - THE DON:Vito Genovese dreamed of becoming the boss of all bosses and was merciless in pursuit of his ambitions. Arriving in United States from Italy as a teenager, he quickly immersed himself in criminal activities, developing a reputation for being a thief and a thug. He eventually linked up with crime boss Giuseppe "Joe the Boss" Masseria, working with the likes of Charles "Lucky" Luciano. Genovese and Luciano eventually turned against their boss during his feud with Salvatore Maranzano. They were instrumental in the assassination of Masseria in April 1931. The pair later plotted against Maranzano, having him taken out later that same year. Now in control, Luciano made Genovese his underboss and Frank Costello became his advisor. Luciano soon ended up in legal trouble, and Genovese quickly ran afoul of the law himself. Facing murder charges, he fled to his native Italy in 1937. Extradited to the United States after World War II, Genovese was supposed to be tried on the earlier murder charge. But the case fell apart after the death of a witness. Genovese built a successful narcotics operation, which helped him fund his bid for power. He is believed to have ordered the attempted assassination of Frank Costello in 1957. While his killer failed to take out Costello, Costello took the hint and decided to retire. Genovese became the boss of the Luciano crime family, which was later renamed after him. In 1959, he was convicted on drug smuggling charges. Genovese was sentenced to 15 years in prison, but he still kept his hand in mob activities from behind bars. He died in custody in 1969. FRANK COSTELLO - THE PRIME MINISTER:Frank Costello rose to great heights in the mob, relying more on his brain than on brawn. Born Francesco Castiglia, he was another immigrant from Italy who found infamy in the United States. He moved to East Harlem with his family when he was only a child. Costello led his own gang as a teenager. With his crew, he engaged in a number of robberies and assaults before moving on to other crimes. Costello befriended Charles "Lucky" Luciano and got involved in his criminal enterprises. During the Prohibition era, Costello helped Luciano and his associates, including Meyer Lansky, Bugsy Siegel and Vito Genovese, become some of the country's leading bootleggers. He also had a special talent for making friends with people in high places - politicians, judges and other public officials. After Luciano was sent to prison, Costello became the Luciano family's top boss. Genovese later returned to the United States, still looking to take over Costello's operation. Costello, always the diplomat, managed to stay on decent terms with Genovese for a time. In 1957, however, Costello narrowly escaped an assassination attempt by one of Genovese's henchmen. He soon decided to step down, giving his position in the organization to Genovese. While lucky to be alive, Costello soon found himself in jail on a contempt charge. He battled numerous charges over the next few years. Released from prison in 1961, Costello kept a low profile until his death in 1973. |
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